Table 1.
Outbreaks of ND in various regions of the world
| Place | Year | Remarks | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Western Isles of Scotland | 1898 | 100% mortality of domestic fowl | (Dzogbema et al., 2021) |
| Newcastle town of England and in Java (Island of Indonesia) | 1926 | N/A | (Dharmayanti et al., 2024) |
| South Africa | 1945 | Caused the death of 1 lac fowls | (Abolnik, 2017) |
| Ethiopia | 1971 | Up to 80% mortality | (Dzogbema et al., 2021) |
| 3rd Panzootic | 1968–1972 | Velogenic strains caused up to 100% mortality | (Rehan et al., 2019) |
| Started from the Middle East | From 1980 onwards | High mortality | (Brown and Bevins, 2017) |
| Southern England | 2005 | Low mortality | (Alexander, 2011) |
| Punjab, Pakistan | 2011–2012 | Mortality of 45 billion broilers poses a 6 billion PKR loss | (Hussain et al., 2015) |
| Jallo Wildlife Park, Lahore, Pakistan | 2012 | Resulted in the death of 190 peacocks | (Rehan et al., 2019) |
| 60 countries on average | 2013–2015 | N/A | (Rehan et al., 2019) |
| Moscow | August 2022 | An outbreak in the backyard poultry killed 45 birds | (Rtishchev et al., 2023) |
| Poland | July 2023 | On July 12, the first report showed the slaughter of 43,000 hens. On July 24, a report showed outbreaks on three premises, one in backyard poultry with 81 birds, and 2 on commercial farms involving 3210 and 28,500 birds. | (Haddas, 2023) |
Figure 1.
Mechanism of action of chitosan NPs to produce an immune response
Figure 2.
Simple methods of modification of chitosan to get various types of chitosan derivatives
Table 2.
Chitosan and chitosan derivatives-based vaccines
| Type of chitosan | Physicochemical properties | Antiviral effects | Type of animal | Dose rate | Parameters tested | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
| Chitosan | Size: 0.5–2 mm Shape: spherical | Against genotypes II and VII: MW881875 and MW881876 | African green monkeys | 62 µg/ml | CC50: 27.41±12.63 µg/ml, no antiviral activity | (Alkhalefa et al., 2022) |
| Propolis and chitosan | Size: 0.5–2 mm Shape: round | -do- | African green monkeys | 30 µg/ml | CC50: 231.78± 11.46 µg/ml, better antiviral activity than chitosan alone | (Alkhalefa et al., 2022) |
| 6-deoxy-6-bromo- N-phthaloyl chitosan | – | Newcastle disease virus | African green monkeys - | – | HI titer to virus becomes zero, TNF-α and IFN-β produce immunity | (He et al., 2021) |
| β-chitosan | Molecular weight: 3–6 kDa | Against NDV | SPF chickens | 5743 g/mol | Production of IL-2, TNF-α, IFN-α IFN-β and TLR-7 Better antiviral activity than α chitosan | (He et al., 2016) |
| N-2 HTAC and N, O carboxymethyl chitosan NPs | Size: 309.7 nm, shape: spherical, ZP: +49.9 mV | pVAX I-f(o) | SPF chickens | Intranasal 200 µg 2 | Greater IgG Secretory IgA Lymphocyte proliferation stimulated IL-2, IL-4 and IFN-γ | (Zhao et al., 2018) |
| N-2 HTAC and N, O carboxymethyl chitosan NPs | Size: 252.2 nm, shape: spherical, zeta potential: +41.1 mV, deacetylation: 85% | Attenuated live NDV | SPF chickens | Oral/intranasal 107.5 EID50 of the virus 1 | High titers of serum antibody Lymphocyte proliferation, Greater IL-2, IL-4 and IFN- γ Negligible clinical signs and mortality | (Jin et al., 2017) |
| N-2 HTAC chitosan NPs | Size: 303.8 nm, shape: spherical, zeta potential: +45.7 mV, deacetylation: 85%, molecular weight: 71.3 kDa | Attenuated live NDV | SPF chickens | Oral/intranasal 107.12 EID50 of virus 1 | Complete protection that is enhanced cell-mediated and humoral immune response as compared to commercially available live attenuated vaccine | (Zhao et al., 2016) |
| O-2’ HTAC chitosan NPs | Size: 303.5 nm, shape: spherical, zeta potential: +46.3 mV, deacetylation: 85% | Attenuated live NDV | SPF chickens | Intranasal/oral 1 | Complete protection that is enhanced cell-mediated and humoral immune response as compared to commercially available live attenuated vaccine | (Dai et al., 2015) |
| Chitosan NPs | Size: 199.5 nm, shape: spherical, zeta potential: +12.1 mV, deacetylation: 80% and 71.3 kDa | F gene plasmid DNA | SPF chickens | Intranasal 200 mcg 2 | Greater IgG Secretory IgA Lymphocyte proliferation No clinical sign and symptoms, no mortality | (Zhao et al., 2014) |
| Chitosan NPs | Size: 371.1 nm, shape: spherical, zeta potential: +2.8 mV, deacetylation: 80% and 71.3 kDa | Lentogenic live NDV | SPF chickens | Intranasal/oral 1 | Greater serum HI Secretory IgA Lymphocyte proliferation No clinical sign and symptoms, no mortality | (Zhao et al., 2012) |
| Chitosan | deacetylation: 70–95% | Live NDV | SPF white leghorn | Oculo-nasal 106 EID50 of virus 1 | Increased cellular immune response and negligible systemic and mucosal antibody response | (Rauw et al., 2010 a) |
| Chitosan | N/A | Live NDV | Isa brown layer | Oculo-nasal 106, EID50 of virus 1 | Higher mucosal and cellular immune response negligible morbidity, mortality, and virus shedding | (Rauw et al., 2010 b) |
| Chitosan NPs | Size: 90.26 nm, shape: regular round | NDV solution | Day-old broiler chicks | Intranasal, 107.5 EID50 of virus 2 | Better immune responses as compared to the La Sota strain (live NDV) | |
| O-2’ HTAC chitosan NPs | Size: 202.3±.52 nm, zeta potential: 50.8±8.21 mV, shape: spherical | F gene plasmid DNA | Day-old SPF chickens | Intranasal | Increased immune levels of cellular, humoral, and mucosal responses, increased lymphocyte proliferation, proliferation of IL-2, IL-4, IFN-γ | (Zhao et al., 2021) |
| O-2’ HTAC chitosan NPs | -do- | F gene plasmid DNA | SPF chickens | Intramuscular | Shorter immune protection and less secretory IgA production compared to intranasal administration | (Zhao et al., 2021) |
| N-2 HTAC and N, O carboxymethyl chitosan NPs | Size: 251.8 and 122.4 nm, Shape: spherical zeta potential: 46.6 and 53.2 mV | Combination of NDV and infectious bronchitis virus | SPF chickens | Intranasal EID50 of virus 107.4, 105.5 Intranasal | Complete protection in terms of more lymphocyte proliferation, IgG, IgA antibodies, IFN-γ, IL-2, and IL-4 | (Zhao et al., 2017) |
| N-2 hydroxypropyl dimethyl ammonium chloride chitosan NPs | Size: 252.2±32.68 nm, zeta potential: 41.1±.089 mV, Size: spherical, deacetylation: 85% | Attenuated live NDV/Lasota strain | SPF chickens | Intranasal | 0% mortality and 100% protection, more IgA and HI titer, produce systemic immunity, Th type I cellular immune response, higher IL-2, IL-4, and IFN-γ | (Jin et al., 2017) |
| N-2 hydroxypropyl dimethyl ammonium chloride | -do- | -do- | SPF chickens | Oral | 10% mortality and 90% protection, higher IL-2, IL-4 and IFN-γ | (Jin et al., 2017) |
| N-2 hydroxypropyl dimethyl ammonium chloride | -do- | -do- | SPF chickens | After storing 3 months of intranasal | 0% mortality and 100% protection, higher IL-2, IL-4 and IFN-γ | (Jin et al., 2017) |
| Sulfate chitosan NPs | Size: 156.2±9.29 nm, zeta potential: 17.8±2.65 mV, deacetylation: 86% | Inactivated NDV | White leghorn chickens (SPF) | N/A | 100% mortality and 0% protection | (Yang et al., 2020) |
| HTAC chitosan NPs | Size: 320.03±.84 nm, zeta potential: +18.3±.5 mV, deacetylation: 86% | -do- | SPF chickens | N/A | 0% mortality and 100% protection, higher cellular immunity level | (Yang et al., 2020) |
| Chitosan NPs | Size: 343.43±4.12, zeta potential: +19.67±.58 mV, deacetylation: 86% | -do- | SPF chickens | N/A | 0% mortality and 100% protection higher cellular immunity level | (Yang et al., 2020) |
| Chitosan NPs | Size 196 nm, zeta potential: +13.6–23.5 mV | The inactivated antigen of NDV | SPF chickens | Eye drop | After up to 3 weeks of inoculation, no clinical signs were observed | (Mohammadi et al., 2021 b) |
| Chitosan microspheres | Size: 2 µm shape: spheres 10 kDa, deacetylation: 90.8% | Inactivated subunit antigen of NDV | SPF chickens | Subcut 1 | Provide 40–60% protection, IL-1 | (Park et al., 2004) |
| Chitosan microspheres | -do- | Whole virion | SPF chickens | Subcut 1 | Produce the highest titer for antibodies and all chickens survived | (Park et al., 2004) |
| Homokinin-1 adjuvant with NDV chitosan NPs | – | Inactivated NDV | SPF chickens | Eye drop 1 | Pronounced HI titer, Produce specific humoral and cellular immune response, better immune response than NPs adjuvant NDV | (Mohammadi et al., 2021 a) |
| Chitosan-calcium phosphate-NDV | – | Inactivated NDV | Commercial chickens | Intranasal, 3 | Less humoral immunity in broilers as compared to layers | (Volkova et al., 2014) |
[i] HTAC: hydroxypropyl trimethyl ammonium chloride; NPs: nanoparticles; EID50: embryo infectious dose 50%; SPF: specific pathogen free; mV: milli volt; N/A: not available; kDa: kilodalton; NDV: Newcastle disease virus; Ig: immunoglobulin; IL: interleukin; IFN-γ: interferon gamma; HI: hemagglutination inhibition; Th type 1: T helper type 1 cells; subcut: subcutaneous; CC50: cytotoxicity concentration; EC50: effective concentration; TNF; tumor necrosis factor; TLR-4: toll-like receptor 4.