| B/bacterial agent | Helicobacter pylori virulence infection | cytotoxin-associated gene A (CagA) | CagA-expressing gastric epithelial cells | Developing extra-gastric disorders associated with CagApositive H. pylori infection | 1, 25 |
| B/bacterial agent | Trypanosoma brucei | Serum resistance associated protein | T. brucei | Allowing evasion from human innate immunity | 48 |
| B/bacterial agent | T. brucei | Immunogenic variant surface glycoprotein | T. brucei | Altering the physical properties of the erythrocyte membrane and causing clearance of infected erythrocytes by macrophages in the liver and spleen | 48 |
| B/bacterial agent | Gram-negative bacteria | Lipopolysaccharide | Gram-negative bacteria | Promoting caspase-11 activation and host defence against bacterial infection and pathogenesis of sepsis | 1 |
| B/viruses | Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) | Cytoskeletal proteins (Actin, Tubulin, Lamin, Myosin), microRNA (miRNA) | Cellular target: Lymphocytes | Induce proinflammatory cytokines, inhibition of apoptosis, increased susceptibility of naïve T cells, downregulation of CD4 and MHC I, support viral reproduction and pathogenesis | 32 |
| B/viruses | Human Papillomavirus (HPV) | Immunoregulator molecules, miRNA | Cellular target: Epithelial cells | Apoptosis, viral proliferation | 32 |
| B/viruses | Human T-lymphotropic-1 virus (HTLV-1)- infected T-cell lines | Viral transactivator (Tax) | T lymphocytes | HTLV-1 infection, activating transcription of target cells | 1, 33 |
| B/parasites | Plasmodium falciparum/Malaria | Nucleic acid, lipides | P. falciparum-infected red blood cells | Promote malaria transmission and parasite survival, intercellular communication via gene delivery | 45, 46 |
| B/parasites | Leishmania donovani/Leishmaniasis | Nucleic acid, lipides | From L. donovani | Inhibit the macrophage immune response, induce macrophages to secrete IL-8 rather than TNF-α | 46, 53 |
| B/parasites | Trichomonas vaginalis/Trichomoniasis | Nucleic acid, lipides | From T. vaginalis | Facilitate T. vaginalis invasion and modulate host inflammatory activation, promote pathogen adherence to epithelial cells; inhibit IL-8 secretion by ectocervical cells and neutrophil migration to the infection site | 45, 46 |
| B/parasites | Schistosoma japonicum/Schistosomiasis | Nucleic acid, lipids | From S. japonicum | Mediate parasite-host communications and activate the host immune response, promote M1 macrophage polarization with increased production of pro-inflammatory factors | 41, 46 |
| B/biotoxins/animal toxins | Bufo maxima/Toxin β γ-CAT/Cytotoxicity, neurotoxicity, immunosuppression | Virulence factor | Toxin β γ-CAT Isolated from Bufo maxima skin secretions | Regulation of immune response, stimulate produce functional exosomes and activate immune T cell response | 8 |
| B/biotoxins/plant toxins | Plant toxins /Trichosanthes kirilowii, Trichosanthin toxin/toxic shock syndrome | Virulence factor | T. kirilowi | Vehicle of delivery, Trichosanthin toxin uses the delivery of exosomes to form unique toxin-loaded vesicles | 1, 8 |
| B/biotoxins/mycotoxin | Fusarium sp./T-2 mycotoxin / cytotoxic effects, immunotoxicity | Virulence factor | Fusarium sp. infected cells | Receptor-mediated, the exosome was used as a safe transport carrier for receptor cells to transmit HIF-1 α through the exosome. The release of exosomes is related to HIF-1 α in hypoxic tumours, which is beneficial to immune escape | 8, 54 |
| B/ biotoxins/bacterial toxin | Bacillus anthracis/Lethal toxin/ anthrax | Virulence factor | B. anthracis infected cells | Vehicle of delivery, the lethal factor of anthrax lethal toxin, can be transmitted from cell to cell through exosomes, which may play a toxic role over a long distance | 1, 8 |
| B/biotoxins/bacterial toxin | Corynebacterium diphtheriae, Diphtheria Toxin/ Diphtheria | Virulence factor | C. diphtheriae infected cells | Receptor-mediated, exosome directly induces toxin oligomerization on the membrane to protect cells | 1, 8 |
| B/biotoxins/bacterial toxin | Vibrio cholerae/Cholera toxin/ Cholera | Virulence factor | V. cholerae, infected cells | Receptor-mediated, Cholera toxin can be propagated and transmitted through exosomes in the form of bioactivity | 1, 55 |
| B/biotoxins/bacterial toxin | Shigella sp./Shiga toxin/ Shigellosis | Virulence factor | Shigella sp. infected cells | Vehicle of delivery, Shiga toxin exists on the surface of exosome | 8 |
| B/biotoxins/bacterial toxin | Staphylococcus aureus/ Alpha toxin/Toxic shock syndrome, sepsis, pneumonia | Virulence factor | S. aureus infected cells | Regulation of immune response, exosome acts as bait to capture membrane virulence factors (such as porotoxins) to prevent target tissue damage | 8 |
| C | Arsenite/Lung carcinogenesis, liver carcinogenesis | miR-21, miR-155 | Lung and liver cells | Gene modulation, gene expression | 8, 61 |
| C | Cigarette smoke/Lung carcinoma, Alzheimer’s disease | miR-21, IL-13, mediators of Wnt/β-catenin pathway | Lung cells | Gene modulation, gene expression | 41, 61 |
| C | Pyridostigmine bromide, Permethrin/Gulf War Illness, neurological diseases | Spectrin breakdown products (SPBs) | Nerve cells | Neuromodulation | 61 |
| C | Manganese/Synucleopathies, other neurodegenerative diseases, Parkinson’s disease | α-synuclein | Nerve cells | Neuromodulation | 61 |
| R | Ionising radiation/Tracheal carcinoma | miRNAs, integrins and chemokines | Immune and lung cells | Gene modulation, gene expression | 61 |
