| Apoptosis | Apoptosis is a prevailing form of RCD that requires activation of caspases leading to DNA fragmentation without loss of plasma membrane integrity. It can be extrinsic and intrinsic. | Membrane blebbing, cell shrinkage, retraction pseudopods, reduction of cellular and nuclear volume, nuclear fragmentation, chromatin condensation, apoptotic body formation (activation of caspases, e.g. CASP2, CASP8, CASP3, oligonucleosomal DNA fragmentation, cytochrome c release altered Bc1-2 family protein expression and activation) | 6, 8, 9 |
| Ferroptosis | Ferroptosis is a form of cell death caused by iron-dependent lipid peroxidation and L-ROS accumulation. | Normal spherical cells-lack of rupture and blebbing of the plasma membrane, rounding up of the cell, small mitochondria with condensed mitochondrial membrane densities, reduction or vanishing of mitochondria cristae, as well as outer mitochondrial membrane rupture, normal nuclear size (L-ROS accumulation, activation of MAPKs, inhibition of system Xc- with decreased cystine uptake, GSH depletion and increased NADPH oxidation, inhibition GPX4, release of AA mediators (e.g. 11-HETE and 15-HETE). | 8, 9, 10 |
| Pyroptosis | Pyroptosis is a form of lytic cell death that occurs in inflammatory cells in response to proinflammatory stimuli. | Inflammasome activation membrane rupture, cell swelling/cell oedema and lysis, pore-induced intracellular traps, DNA fragmentation, nuclear condensation (DAMP release-e.g.HMGB1, ATP), dependent on caspase 1 and 7, proinflammatory cytokine release. | 9, 10 |
| Necroptosis | Necroptosis is a programmed form of necrosis, a modality of RCD that is activated by RIPK1 and requires RIPK3-dependent phosphorilation of MLKL. | Plasma membrane rupture, cell swelling and lysis, organelle swelling, moderate chromatin condensation (ATP decline, DAMPs release, activation of RIPK1, RIPK3 and MLKL, PARP1 hyperactivation). | 6, 8, 10, 11 |
| Parthanatos | Parthanatos is a PARP1-dependent RCD that is activated by oxidative stress-induced DNA damage and chromatinolysis. | Cell swelling and lysis, DNA fragmentation, nuclear condensation, release of mitochondrial apoptosis-inducing factor [excessive activation of PARP1, caspase-independent NAD+ and ATP depletion, accumulation of poly ADPribose (PAR) polymers, AIFM1 release from mitochondria to nucleus]. | 6,9 |
| Autophagy- dependent cell death | Autophagy-dependent cell death is a type of RCD dependent on autophagy machinery and/or components of autophagy. | Autophagic vacuolisation, lack of cell membrane changes, lack of chromatin condensation, accumulation of double-membraned autophagic vacuoles, increased lysosomal activity, MAP1LC3B-I, MAP1LC3-II (or LC3B-I, LC3B-II) conversion, substrate degradation (e.g. p62). | 6, 8, 9, 10 |
