Consumption of various nutrients in two groups of patients (with optimal and above-optimal metabolic control)
| Variable | Whole group (N=48) | HbA1<6.5% (N=20) | HbA1≥6.5% (N=28) | p-value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sodium [mg/day] | 2081.5 [1554.1–2732.2] | 1899.1 [1469.7–2316.1] | 2331.2 [1743.3–3123.0] | 0.046 |
| Potassium [mg/day] | 2833.8 ± 903.3 | 2636.5 ± 961.0 | 2974.7 ± 849.1 | 0.204 |
| Calcium [mg/day] | 780.5 ± 345.5 | 661.9 ± 289.3 | 865.1 ± 362.1 | 0.043 |
| Phosphorus [mg/day] | 1387.1 [984.7–1577.8] | 1087.3 [902.9–1518.6] | 1491.5 [1007.6–1754.1] | 0.140 |
| Magnesium [mg/day] | 295.2 ± 97.7 | 278.1 ± 102.6 | 307.3 ± 94.0 | 0.312 |
| Iron [mg/day] | 10.5 [8.2–12.9] | 9.5 [8.2–12.0] | 11.5 [8.2–14.6] | 0.221 |
| Zinc [mg/day] | 9.9 [7.6–11.7] | 9.0 [7.2–11.3] | 10.0 [7.6–13.1] | 0.291 |
| Copper [mg/day] | 1.1 [0.8–1.6] | 1.0 [0.7–1.4] | 1.3 [0.9–1.6] | 0.158 |
| Iodine [μg/day] | 31.9 ± 16.0 | 25.1 [18.8–40.1] | 34.1 [21.1–46.1] | 0.281 |
| Manganese [mg/day] | 4.0 ± 1.8 | 4.0 ± 1.6 | 4.1 ± 2.0 | 0.857 |
| Vitamin A [μg/day] | 752.8 [502.7–1156.2] | 806.4 [566.2–912.3] | 691.6 [426.9–1224.2] | 0.843 |
| Retinol [μg/day] | 356.5 [239.7–528.0] | 352.0 [276.7–539.9] | 361.4 [214.4–510.5] | 0.524 |
| ß-Carotene [μg/day] | 1840.5 [1012.8–3629.2] | 1840.5 [925.2–3140.7] | 1839.0 [1136.7–4186.6] | 0.579 |
| Vitamin D [μg/day] | 1.7 [1.0–2.5] | 1.9 [1.0–2.5] | 1.4 [1.0–2.4] | 0.369 |
| Vitamin E [mg/day] | 8.4 [5.5–12.6] | 7.2 [4.8–9.6] | 9.6 [6.0–13.8] | 0.119 |
| Thiamine [mg/day] | 1.0 [0.8–1.4] | 1.0 [0.8–1.2] | 1.1 [0.9–1.5] | 0.171 |
| Riboflavin [mg/day] | 1.6 [1.2–2.0] | 1.3 [1.2–1.9] | 1.7 [1.4–2.0] | 0.124 |
| Niacin [mg/day] | 17.7 [14.2–25.0] | 15.3 [12.6–19.1] | 21.9 [15.6–30.4] | 0.023 |
| Vitamin B6 [mg/day] | 1.6 [1.3–2.2] | 1.5 [1.1–2.2] | 1.7 [1.4–2.3] | 0.268 |
| Folate [μg/day] | 268.8 [204.5–370.1] | 283.5 ± 112.4 | 306.6 ± 128.3 | 0.521 |
| Vitamin B12 [μg/day] | 3.3 [2.2–4.7] | 2.6 [1.9–3.8] | 3.8 [2.8–5.1] | 0.058 |
| Vitamin C [mg/day] | 78.0 [48.8–145.8] | 78.5 [49.3–146.3] | 75.3 [48.3–145.8] | 0.762 |
Percentage of patients with nutrient consumption below EAR/AI
| Variable | Whole group (N=48) | HbA1<6,5% (N=20) | HbA1≥6,5% (N=28) | Test Chi2 Persona |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sodium intake in regard to AI [%] | 20.8 | 30.0 | 14.3 | .186 |
| Potassium intake in regard to AI [%] | 75.0 | 80.0 | 71.4 | .499 |
| Calcium intake in regard to EAR [%] | 54.2 | 60.0 | 50.0 | .493 |
| Phosphorus intake in regard to EAR [%] | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 1.000 |
| Magnesium intake in regard to EAR [%] | 58.3 | 65.0 | 53.6 | .428 |
| Iron intake in regard to EAR [%] | 14.6 | 15.0 | 14.3 | .944 |
| Zinc intake in regard to EAR [%] | 29.2 | 35.0 | 25.0 | .452 |
| Copper intake in regard to EAR [%] | 12.5 | 20.0 | 7.1 | .184 |
| Iodine intake in regard to EAR [%] | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 1.000 |
| Manganese intake in regard to AI [%] | 10.4 | 15.0 | 7.1 | .380 |
| Vitamin A intake in regard to EAR [%] | 39.6 | 30.0 | 46.4 | .251 |
| Vitamin D intake in regard to AI [%] | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 1.000 |
| Vitamin E intake in regard to AI [%] | 58.3 | 70.0 | 50.0 | .166 |
| Thiamine intake in regard to EAR [%] | 52.1 | 65.0 | 42.9 | .130 |
| Riboflavin intake in regard to EAR [%] | 14.6 | 20.0 | 10.7 | .369 |
| Niacin intake in regard to EAR [%] | 14.6 | 20.0 | 10.7 | .369 |
| Vitamin B6 intake in regard to EAR [%] | 14.6 | 20.0 | 10.7 | .369 |
| Folate intake in regard to EAR [%] | 62.5 | 70.0 | 57.1 | .364 |
| Vitamin B12 intake in regard to EAR [%] | 22.9 | 30.0 | 17.9 | .324 |
| Vitamin C intake in regard to EAR [%] | 45.8 | 40.0 | 50.0 | .493 |
Participants’ characteristics
| Variable | Whole group (N=48) | HbA1<6.5% (N=20) | HbA1≥ 6.5% (N=28) | p-value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sex, female/male; n | 15/33, 48 | 7/13 | 8/20 | - |
| Age [year] | 25.6 [22.2–28.3] | 23.0 [26.0–29.4] | 21.1 [24.7–28.2] | 0.254 |
| BMI [kg/m2] | 23.7 ± 3.0 | 22.7 ± 2.4 | 25.6 ± 6.2 | 0.037 |
| Height [cm] | 175.0 ± 9.5 | 174.5 ± 9.8 | 175.4 ± 9.6 | 0.738 |
| Weight [kg] | 73.1 ± 13.3 | 69.3 ± 11.4 | 75.8 ± 14.1 | 0.098 |
| Duration of type 1 diabetes [year] | 13.2 ± 6.4 | 15.0 ± 6.6 | 11.9 ± 6.0 | 0.098 |
| Time on continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion (CSII) [year] | 7.5 ± 4.1 | 4.5 [8.0–11.0] | 4.0 [6.0–10.0] | 0.391 |
Calorie sources in two groups of patients (with optimal and above-optimal metabolic control)
| Variable | Whole group (N=48) | HbA1<6,5% (N=20) | HbA1≥6,5% (N=28) | p-value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Total energy per day [kcal] | 2011.8 ± 684.0 | 1819.0 ± 506.7 | 2149.6 ± 765.9 | 0.099 |
| Protein [kcal] | 338.4 ± 128.3 | 248.8 [289.8–335.1] | 270.7 [359.0–442.0] | 0.081 |
| Carbohydrate [kcal] | 1006.5 ± 310.7 | 937.7 ± 223.9 | 1055.70 ± 356.0 | 0.198 |
| Fat [kcal] | 635.7 [468.0–902.5] | 604.1 ± 223.1 | 750.1 ± 382.6 | 0.132 |
| Saturated fat (SFA) [kcal] | 263.7 ± 115.7 | 251.8 ± 105.4 | 272.1 ± 123.7 | 0.555 |
| Monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) [kcal] | 213.2 [162.2–342.5] | 189.7 [163.7–267.7] | 234.5 [162.2–354.5] | 0.397 |
| Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) [kcal] | 85.7 [58.0–114.0] | 67.2 [51.3–94.9] | 96.5 [70.0–147.3] | 0.029 |
| Percentage of calories from protein [%] | 16.1 [14.2–19.1] | 17.7 [13.2–19.1] | 15.7 [14.3–19.4] | 0.778 |
| Percentage of calories from carbohydrates [%] | 51.1 ± 7.0 | 52.3 ± 5.0 | 50.2 ± 8.2 | 0.322 |
| Percentage of calories from fat [%] | 33.2 ± 7.2 | 32.7 ± 5.6 | 33.5 ± 8.2 | 0.691 |
| Percentage of calories from SFA [%] | 13.0±3.6 | 13.6 ± 3.9 | 12.5 ± 3.4 | 0.290 |
| Percentage of calories from MUFA [%] | 11.7 [10.0–14.2] | 11.2 [10.7–13.8] | 12.1 [9.2–14.3] | 0.875 |
| Percentage of calories from PUFA [%] | 4.7 ± 1.7 | 3.9 [3.4–4.7] | 4.9 [4.0–6.2] | 0.037 |
| Total carbohydrates [g/day] | 251.6 ± 77.7 | 234.4 ± 56.0 | 263.9 ± 89.0 | 0.198 |
| Digestible carbohydrates [g/day] | 223.9 ± 72.9 | 211.5 ± 51.2 | 232.8 ± 85.0 | 0.324 |
| Starch [g/day] | 128.4 ± 49.2 | 135.0 [101.4–154.7] | 122.1 [85.4–158.3] | 0.810 |
| Fiber [g/day] | 18.1 [14.1–24.9] | 19.1 ± 7.3 | 19.90 ± 7,35 | 0.716 |
| Total protein [g/day] | 84.6 ± 32.1 | 72.5 [62.2–83.8] | 89.8 [67.7–110.5] | 0.081 |
| Animal protein [g/day] | 42.3 [28.2–55.2] | 35.0 [28.2–54.2] | 44.0 [32.1–55.2] | 0.510 |
| Plant protein [g/day] | 24.8 ± 8.2 | 24.5 ± 7.3 | 24.9 ± 8.9 | 0.857 |
| Fat [g/day] | 70.6 [52.0–100.3] | 67.1 ± 24.8 | 83.4 ± 42.5 | 0.132 |
| SFA [mg/day] | 29.3 ± 12.9 | 28.0 ± 11.7 | 30.2 ± 13.8 | 0.555 |
| MUFA [mg/day] | 23.7 [18.0–38.1] | 21.1 [18.2–29.8] | 26.1 [18.0–39.4] | 0.397 |
| PUFA [mg/day] | 9.5 [6.4–12.7] | 7.5 [5.7–10.5] | 7.8 [10.7–16.4] | 0.029 |
| Cholesterol [mg/day] | 287.6 [228.0–395.4] | 263.9 [221.1–427.6] | 307.9 [235.8–378.0] | 0.975 |