References
- Stuart Woolf: Napoleon’s Integration of Europe, London 1991.
- From the enormous quantity of this kind: Michael Broers: Napoleonic Imperialism and the Savoyard Monarchy 1773–1821. State building in Piedmont, Lampeter 1997; Michael Broers: The Napoleonic Empire in Italy 1796–1814. Cultural imperialism in a European context?, Basingstoke 2005; Michael Rowe: From Reich to Nation. The Rhineland in the Revolutionary Age, 1780-1830, Cambridge 2003; Marijn van der Burg: Napoleonic Governance in the Netherlands and Northwest Germany. Conquest, Incorporation, and Integration, Cham 2021; Juan Mercader Riba: Catalunya e l’Imperi napoleònic, Monserrat 1978; Carla Nardi: Napoleone e Roma. La politica della Consulta romana, Rome 1989.
- The term as quoted in the headline was given general currency by Marc Raeff: The Well Ordered Police State. Social and institutional change through the Germanies and Russia, 1600–1800, London 1983.
- There are notable exceptions to this. Charles Durand: Les auditeurs au conseil d’État sous le Consulat et le Premier Empire, Aix-en-Provence 1958; and Edward A. Whitcomb: Napoleon’s Prefects, in: American Historical Review 79 (1974), pp. 1089–1118 are all important studies that pre-date the post-Woolf change in historiographical direction.
- On the high politics: Isser Woloch: Napoleon and his Collaborators. The Making of a Dictatorship, New York 2001. For this process at local level within France: Howard G. Brown: Ending the French Revolution. Violence, Justice and Repression from the Terror to Napoleon, London 2006.
- On the edifice of the new state: Michael Rowe: Administration. Police and Governance, in: Michael Broers / Philip Dwyer (eds.): The Cambridge History of the Napoleonic Wars, Vol. 1: Politics and Diplomacy, Cambridge 2022, pp. 188–207.
- Recent local studies that reflect new preoccupations with the interaction of imperial ideology of local officials and native populations who needed to navigate the new regime include: van der Burg: Napoleonic Governance, and Doina Pasca Harsanyi: French Rule in the States of Parma, 1796–1814. Working with Napoleon, Cham 2022.
- Thierry Lentz: Nouvelle Histoire du Premier Empire, Vol. I: Napoléon et la conquête de l’Europe, 1804–1811, Paris 2002, pp. 56–102.
- The role of utility in Napoleonic justifications of authority within the framework laid out by Max Weber is explored in Michael Broers: L’impero napoleonico fra modello e mito, in: Brigitte Mazohl / Paolo Pombeni (eds.): Minoranze negli imperi. Popoli fra identità nazionale e ideologia imperial, Bologna 2012, pp. 35-58.
- Among the most prominent: Jane Burbank / Frederick Cooper: Empires in World History. Power and the Politics of Difference, Princeton 2010; and the more specialised collection of essays in Peter Crooks / Timothy H. Parsons (eds.): Empires and Bureaucracy in World History. From Late Antiquity to the Twentieth Century, Cambridge 2016; Stefan Berger / Alexei Miller (eds.): Nationalizing Empires, Budapest 2015.
- For a closely researched overview: Aurélien Lignereux: L’Empire des Français, 1799–1815, Paris 2012.
- Aurélien Lignereux: Les Impériaux. Administrer et habiter l’Europe de Napoléon, Paris 2019. Aurélien Lignereux: L’Empire des Français, 1799–1815, Paris 2012.
- For a local study that reflects how the administration was supposed to work, relatively normally: Gavin Daly: Inside Napoleonic France. State and Society in Rouen, 1800–1815, Aldershot 2001.
- The collection of essays in: Berger / Miller (eds.): Nationalizing Empires. This volume is devoted specifically to this theme. On the Napoleonic Empire: Michael Broers: The First Napoleonic Empire, 1799–1814, in: Stefan Berger / Alexei Miller (eds.): Nationalizing Empires, Budapest 2015, pp. 99–134.
- For an overview, Aurélien Lignereux: Servir Napoléon. Policiers et gendarmes dans les départements annexés (1796–1814), Seyssel 2012. For local studies, Brown: Endingthe French Revolution; Broers: Napoleonic Imperialism and the Savoyard Monarchy, on northern Italy; Ute Planert: Mythos vom Befreiungskrieg. Franksreich Kriege und der deutsche Süden, 1792–1814, Paderborn 2007.
- For a succinct appraisal of this process: Isser Woloch: The Napoleonic Regime and French Society, in: Philip G. Dwyer (ed.): Napoleon and Europe, London 2001, pp. 60–78.
- For the classic analysis of these concepts: Frédéric Bluche: Le Bonapartisme. Aux origins de la droite autoritaire, 1800–1850, Paris 1980, pp. 47–66. For local case studies of Ralliement and Amalgame’s application: Geoffrey Ellis: Rhine and Loire. Napoleonic elites and social order, in: Gwynne Lewis / Colin Lucas (eds.): Beyond the Terror, Cambridge 1983, pp. 167–189.
- The now classic expression of this is Paul W. Schroeder: The Transformation of European Politics, 1763–1848, Oxford 1994. Similar views frame the argument of Charles J. Esdaile: The Wars of Napoleon, Basingstoke 1995.
- Michael Broers: Policing the Empire. Napoleon and the Pacification of Europe, in: Philip G. Dwyer (ed.): Napoleon and Europe, London 2001, pp. 153–168.
- Michael Broers: A Turner thesis for Europe? The frontier in Napoleonic Europe, in: Rivista Europea di Studi Napoleonici e dell’Età delle Restaurazioni 2, Naples 2021, pp. 3–13.
- On the Franco-Spanish border: Michel Brunet: Le Roussillon: Une société contre l’État, 1780–1820, Toulouse 1986. On the Rhineland: T.C.W. Blanning: The French Revolution in Germany: Occupation and Resistance in the Rhineland, 1792–1802, Oxford 1983. On Piedmont: Michele Ruggiero: La Rivolta dei Contadini Piemontesi, Turin 1974. On Belgium: Paul Verhaegen: La Belgique sous la domination française, 1792–1814, 5 vol., Brussels 1923–1929.
- On the background in Catalonia: Pierre Vilar: La Catalogne dans l’Espagne moderne, vol. 2: Recherches sur les Fondements Économiques des structures Nationales, Paris 1962, pp. 561–584. On Piedmont: Ruggiero, La Rivolta. On Navarre: John Lawerence Tone: The Fatal Knot: The Guerrilla War in Navarre and the Defeat of Napoleon in Spain, Chapel Hill 1994, pp. 42–58.
- For overviews of the process: Michael Broers: Napoleon’s Other War: Bandits, Rebels and their Pursuers in the Age of Revolutions, Long Hanborough 2010. Charles J. Esdaile: Popular Resistance to the Napoleonic Empire, in: Philip G. Dwyer (ed.): Napoleon and Europe, London 2001, pp. 136–154.
- This process is traced in: Michael Broers: Europe Under Napoleon, 1799–1814, London 1996, pp. 24–98.
- Juan Mercader Riba: Puigcerdà, capital del department del Serge, Barcelona 1971, pp. 18–24.
- Archivio di Stato dei Cuneo, Mazzo 177, fasciolo 1802, Girodi, judge of Demonte, to Prefect, dept. Stura, 29 germinal, year xi/8. 5. 1803.
- Broers: Napoleonic Imperialism and the Savoyard Monarchy, p. 309.
- Archives Nationales de Paris [ANP] BB 5 261 (Organisation judiciare, Rhin) S. Prefect, Simmern, to Minister of Justice, 29 fructidor, year x.
- ANP BB 5 261 (Organisation judiciare, Rhin) Magistrat de Sûrété, Simmern, to Minister of Justice, 1. 9. 1809.
- Isser Woloch: The New Regime. Transformations of the French Civic Order, 1789–1820s, New York 1994, p. 392.
- The classic studies of conscription are: Alan Forrest: Conscripts and Deserters. The French army and society during the Revolution and Empire, Oxford 1989; Isser Woloch: Napoleonic conscription. State power and civil society, in: Past & Present 111 (1986), pp. 75–97.
- On the major urban revolts the rocked the Netherlands: Johann Joor: Resistance against Napoleon in the Kingdom of Holland, in: Michael Broers / Peter Hicks / Agustín Guimerá (eds.): The Napoleonic Empire and the New European Political Culture, Basingstoke 2012, pp. 112–122. A mass uprising in Rotterdam, in conjunction with the advance of the allied armies, actually did help facilitate the collapse of French rule in the region in 1813.
- For a granular study of this: Sylvie Humbert-Convain: Le juge de apix et la repression des infractions douanières en Flandre et en Hollande, 1794–1815. Contribution à l’histoire du Système Continental Napoléonien, Lille 1993. Aurélien Lignereux has calculated that exactly 100 per cent of the Directors of Customs in the annexed departments were French across the entire period of Napoleonic rule, and 74 per cent of the Directors of the Droits Réunis. Aurélien Lignereux: Les Impériaux. Administrer et Habiter l’Europe de Napoléon, Paris 2019, pp. 81f.
- Martijn van der Burg notes that 74 per cent of sub-prefects in the three Hanseatic departments were from »the Interior« (17 out of 24): Van der Burg: Napoleonic Governance, p. 136.
- Michael Broers: The Politics of Religion in Napoleonic Italy. The War Against Good, 1801–1814, Abingdon 2002, pp. 146–174.
- ANP BB 5 268 (Organisation judiciaire, depts. hanséatiques) Faure to Minister of Justice, 26. 1. 1811.
- ANP BB 5 268 (Organisation judiciaire, depts. hanséatiques) Faure to Minister of Justice, 26. 1. 1811.
- Cited in Broers: Napoleonic Empire in Italy, p. 247.
- Michael Broers: The Napoleonic Mediterranean. Enlightenment, Revolution and Empire, London 2017, pp. 178–180, 195.
- For a statistical analysis: Ligneruex: Les Impériaux, pp. 72–82.
- Initially, a partial exception to this rule was made in the Dutch departments following their annexation in 1810, where several Dutch prefects were appointed alongside Frenchmen. However, by 1812, all prefectoral appointments were French, as were those in the three newly annexed Hanseatic departments that followed the annexation of the kingdom of Holland. Van der Burg: Napoleonic Governance, pp. 101–122. On Rhinelanders’ resentment of this policy, and their own reluctance to serve outside their region, see Michel Rowe: From Reich to State. The Rhineland in the Revolutionary Age, 1780–1830, Cambridge 2003, pp. 91, 94.
- Cited in Broers: Napoleonic Empire in Italy, p. 185.
- Cited in Simon Schama: Patriots and Liberators. Revolution in the Netherlands, 1780–1813, New York 1977, p. 621.
- In an Italian context: Broers: Napoleonic Empire in Italy, pp. 175–212.
- Van der Burg: Napoleonic Governance, pp. 128–138.
- These problems are set out carefully in the overview in Lignereux: Les Impériaux, pp. 139–195. For a large quantity of letters of refusal of posts in the Hanseatic departments that usually offered promotion to already senior French magistrates: ANP BB5 268 (Organisation judiciare, departments hanséatiques). Health, family circumstances and lack of knowledge of the local language were the most frequently cited reasons for refusal.
- This overlap of authority was particularly marked in the Catalan departments — the heritage of Habsburg rule, where not only were judicial and administrative functions fused at the lowest local level in the offices of alcade (mayor) and battle (judge), but also at provincial level in the office of corrigedor, in the highest provincial body the Audiencía. Broers: Napoleonic Mediterranean, pp. 171– 174. On the former Austrian parts of the Illyrian departments: Broers: Napoleonic Mediterranean, pp. 201–204.
- Cited in Broers: Napoleonic Mediterranean, p. 202.
- Rowe: From Reich to State, pp. 102f.
- Cited in Broers: Napoleonic Empire in Italy, p. 81.
- Broers: Napoleonic Empire in Italy, pp. 193–194.
- Thierry Lentz: Nouvelle Histoire du Premier Empire, vol. 3: La France et l’Europe de Napoléon, 1804–1814, Paris 2007, p. 184.
- ANP BB5 268 (Organisation judiciare, departments hanséatiques) President, Cour Impériale, Hamburg, to Minister of Justice, 26. 8. 1811.
- Cited in Broers: Napoleonic Empire in Italy, p. 156.
- Cited in Broers: Napoleonic Empire in Italy, p. 156.
- Schroeder: Transformation, p. 441.
- Broers: Napoleonic Mediterranean, pp. 168–171.
- Broers: Napoleonic Empire in Italy, p. 261.
- For an overview, Lignereux, Les impériaux, pp. 189–195.
- Jacques-Claude Beugnot: Le Grand-Duché de Berg (Extrait des Mémoires inédits du Comte Beugnot), Paris 1852, p. 18.
- Cited in Broers: Napoleonic Mediterranean, p. 209.
- Lignereux: Les impériaux, pp. 36f.
- Tournon to his mother, 3. 9. 1810, in: Jacques Moulard (ed.): Lettres inédites du comte Camille de Tournon, prêfet de Rome, vol. 1: La politique et l’esprit public, 1809–1814, Paris 1914.
- Cited in Broers: Politics of Religion, p. 60.
- Ambrogio A. Caiani: To Kidnap a Pope. Napoleon and Pius VII, New Haven 2021, p. 289.
- Sankar Muthu: Enlightenment Against Empire, Princeton 2003, p. 37.
- This is the constant theme of his Considérations sur les causes de la grandeur des romains et de leur decadence, first published in 1727.
- Cited in Broers: Napoleonic Mediterranean, p. 235.
- Michèle Duchet: Anthropologie et histoire au siècle des Lumières, Paris 1971, Michèle Duchet: Diderot et l’histoire des Deux Indes ou l’écriture fragmentaire, Paris 1978.
- Muthu: Enlightenment, pp. 4–6.