References
- 1. S. Ghosh, S. Das, R. Mondal, S. Abdullah, S. Sultana, S. Singh, A. Sehgal and T. Behl, A review on the effect of COVID-19 in type 2 asthma and its management, Int. Immunopharmacol. 91 (2021) Article ID 107309 (13 pages); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intimp.2020.107309
- 2. D. Wang, B. Hu, C. Hu, F. Zhu, X. Liu, J. Zhang, B. Wang, H. Xiang, Z. Cheng, Y. Xiong, Y. Zhao, Y. Li, X. Wang and Z. Peng, Clinical characteristics of 138 hospitalized patients with 2019 novel coronavirus–infected pneumonia in Wuhan, China, JAMA 323(11) (2020) 1061–1069; https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.1585
- 3. O. I. Oyeniran and T. Chia, Novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in Nigeria: how effective are government interventions?, Ethics Med. Public Health 14 (2020) Article ID 100515 (2 pages); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jemep.2020.100515
- 4. Q. Li, X. Guan, P. Wu, X. Wang, L. Zhou, Y. Tong, R. Ren, K. S. M. Leung, E. H. Y. Lau, J. Y. Wong, X. Xing, N. Xiang, Y. Wu, C. Li, Q. Chen, D. Li, T. Liu, J. Zhao, M. Liu, W. Tu, C. Chen, L. Jin, R. Yang, Q. Wang, S. Zhou, R. Wang, H. Liu, Y. Luo, Y. Liu, G. Shao, H. Li, Z. Tao, Y. Yang, Z. Deng, B. Liu, Z. Ma, Y. Zhang, G. Shi, T. T. Y. Lam, J. T. Wu, G. F. Gao, B. J. Cowling, B. Yang, G. M. Leung and Z. Feng, Early transmission dynamics in Wuhan, China, of novel coronavirus-infected pneumonia, N. Engl. J. Med. 382 (2020) 1199–1207; https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2001316
- 5. J. Hartmann-Boyce, J. Gunnell, J. Drake, A. Otunla, J. Suklan, E. Schofield, J. Kinton, M. Inada-Kim, F. D. R. Hobbs and P. Dennison, Asthma and COVID-19: review of evidence on risks and management considerations, BMJ Evid-Based Med. 26(4) (2021) Article ID 195 (8 pages); https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjebm-2020-111506
- 6. I. B. Ahluwalia, M. Myers and J. E. Cohen, COVID-19 pandemic: an opportunity for tobacco use cessation, Lancet Pub. Health 5 (2020) e577 (1 page); https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(20)30236-X
- 7. J. W. Mims, Asthma: definitions and pathophysiology, Int. Forum Allergy Rhinol. 5 (2015) S2–S6; https://doi.org/10.1002/alr.21609
- 8. J. A. Krishnan, R. F. Lemanske, G. J. Canino, K. S. Elward, M. Kattan, E. C. Matsui, H. Mitchell, E. R. Sutherland and M. Minnicozzi, Asthma outcomes: Symptoms, J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 129(3) (2012) S124–S135; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2011.12.981
- 9. J. Bousquet, E. Mantzouranis, A. A. Cruz, N. Aït-Khaled, C. E. Baena-Cagnani, E. R. Bleecker, C. E. Brightling, P. Burney, A. Bush, W. W. Busse, T. B. Casale, M. Chan-Yeung, R. Chen, B. Chowdhury, K. F. Chung, R. Dahl, J. M. Drazen, L. M. Fabbri, S. T. Holgate, F. Kauffmann, T. Haahtela, N. Khaltaev, J. P. Kiley, M. R. Masjedi, Y. Mohammad, P. O’Byrne, M. R. Partridge, K. F. Rabe, A. Togias, C. van Weel, S. Wenzel, N. Zhong and T. Zuberbier, Uniform definition of asthma severity, control, and exacerbations: Document presented for the World Health Organization consultation on severe asthma, J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 126(5) (2010) 926–938; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2010.07.019
- 10. F. T. Ishmael, The inflammatory response in the pathogenesis of asthma, J. Am. Osteopath. Assoc. 111(11, Suppl. 7) (2011) S11-S17; https://doi.org/10.7556/jaoa.2011.20014
- 11. C. J. Oliphant, J. L. Barlow and A. N. J. McKenzie, Insights into the initiation of type 2 immune responses, Immunology 134(4) (2011) 378–385; https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2567.2011.03499.x
- 12. M. Morais-Almeida and J. Bousquet, COVID-19 and asthma: To have or not to have T2 inflammation makes a difference?, Pulmonology 26(5) (2020) 261–263; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pulmoe.2020.05.003
- 13. E. M. Abrams, G. W. ‘t Jong and C. L. Yang, Asthma and COVID-19, CMAJ 192(20) (2020) E551; https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.200617
- 14. T. Tabassum, A. Rahman, Y. Araf, Md. A. Ullah and M. J. Hosen, Management of asthma patients during the COVID-19 pandemic: pathophysiological considerations to address the challenges, Beni-Suef Univ. J. Basic Appl. Sci. 11(20) (2022) Article ID 20 (14 pages); https://doi.org/10.1186/s43088-022-00204-4
- 15. K. E. J. Philip, S. Buttery, P. Williams, B. Vijayakumar, J. Tonkin, A. Cumella, L. Renwick, L. Ogden, J. K. Quint, S. L. Johnston, M. I. Polkey and N. S. Hopkinson, Impact of COVID-19 on people with asthma: a mixed methods analysis from a UK wide survey, BMJ Open Resp. Res. 9 (2022) e001056 (9 pages); https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjresp-2021-001056
- 16. J. Darveaux and W. W. Busse, Biologics in asthma – The next step toward personalized treatment, J. Allergy Clin. Immunol.: In Practice 3(2) (2015) 152–160; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaip.2014.09.014
- 17. S. Atal and Z. Fatima, IL-6 Inhibitors in the treatment of serious COVID-19: A promising therapy?, Pharm. Med. 34 (2020) 223–231; https://doi.org/10.1007/s40290-020-00342-z
- 18. U. Agrawal, R. Raju and Z. F. Udwadia, Favipiravir: A new and emerging antiviral option in COVID-19, Med. J. Armed Forces India 76(4) (2020) 370–376; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mjafi.2020.08.004
- 19. S. Sharma, S. Basu, N. P. Shetti and T. M. Aminabhavi, Current treatment protocol for COVID-19 in India, Sensors Int. 1 (2020) Article ID 100013 (3 pages); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sintl.2020.100013
- 20. A. Parasher, COVID-19: Current understanding of its pathophysiology, clinical presentation and treatment, Postgrad. Med. J. 97 (1147) (2021) 312–320; https://doi.org/10.1136/postgradmedj-2020-138577
- 21. V. Bilano, S. Gilmour, T. Moffiet, E. T. d’Espaignet, G. A. Stevens, A. Commar, F. Tuyl, I. Hudson and K. Shibuya, Global trends and projections for tobacco use, 1990–2025: an analysis of smoking indicators from the WHO comprehensive information systems for tobacco control, Lancet 385(9972) (2015) 966–976; https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(15)60264-1
- 22. R. Talhout, T. Schulz, E. Florek, J. Van Benthem, P. Wester and A. Opperhuizen, Hazardous compounds in tobacco smoke, Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 8 (2011) 613–628; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph8020613
- 23. M. Ezzati and A. D. Lopez, Estimates of global mortality attributable to smoking in 2000, Lancet 362(9387) (2003) 847–852; https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(03)14338-3
- 24. S. J. Brake, K. Barnsley, W. Lu, K. D. McAlinden, M. S. Eapen and S. S. Sohal, Smoking upregulates angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 receptor: A potential adhesion site for novel coronavirus SARSCoV-2 (Covid-19), J. Clin. Med. 9(3) (2020) Article ID 841 (7 pages); https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm9030841
- 25. M. D. Shastri, S. D. Shukla, W. C. Chong, Rajendra KC, K. Dua, R. P. Patel, G. M. Peterson and R. F. O’Toole, Smoking and COVID-19: What we know so far, Resp. Med. 176 (2021) Article ID 106237 (7 pages); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rmed.2020.106237
- 26. N. M. Siafakas, P. Vermeire, N. B. Pride, P. Paoletti, J. Gibson, P. Howard, J. C. Yernault, M. Decramer, T. Higenbottam, D. S. Postma and J. Rees, Optimal assessment and management of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), Eur. Resp. J. 8(8) (1995) 1398–1420; https://doi.org/10.1183/09031936.95.08081398
- 27. D. Milner, The physiological effects of smoking on the respiratory system, Nurs. Times 100 (2004) 56–59.
- 28. J. Almirall, I. Bolibar, M. Serra-Prat, J. Roig, I. Hospital, E. Carandell, M. Agusti, P. Ayuso, A. Estela and A. Torres, New evidence of risk factors for community-acquired pneumonia: a population-based study, Eur. Resp. J. 31(6) (2008) 1274–1284; https://doi.org/10.1183/09031936.00095807
- 29. H. Müllerova, C. Chigbo, G. W. Hagan, M. A. Woodhead, M. Miravitlles, K. J. Davis and J. A. Wedzicha, The natural history of community-acquired pneumonia in COPD patients: A population database analysis, Resp. Med. 106(8) (2012) 1124–1133; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rmed.2012.04.008
- 30. S. Cohen, D. A. Tyrrell, M. A. Russell, M. J. Jarvis and A. P. Smith, Smoking, alcohol consumption, and susceptibility to the common cold, Am. J. Public Health 83(9) (1993) 1277–1283; https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.83.9.1277
- 31. J. D. Kark, M. Lebiush and L. Rannon, Cigarette smoking as a risk factor for epidemic A(H1N1) influenza in young men, N. Engl. J. Med. 307 (1982) 1042–1046; https://doi.org/10.1056/nejm198210213071702
- 32. Z. Zhou, P. Chen and H. Peng, Are healthy smokers really healthy?, Tob. Ind. Dis. 14 (2016) Article ID 35 (12 pages); https://doi.org/10.1186/s12971-016-0101-z
- 33. L. Arcavi and N. L. Benowitz, Cigarette smoking and infection, Arch. Intern. Med. 164(20) (2004) 2206–2216; https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.164.20.2206
- 34. J.-E. Park, S. Jung, A. Kim and J.-E. Park, MERS transmission and risk factors: a systematic review, BMC Public Health 18 (2018) Article ID 574 (15 pages); https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-5484-8
- 35. H.-S. Nam, J. W. Park, M. Ki, M.-Y. Yeon, J. Kim and S. W. Kim, High fatality rates and associated factors in two hospital outbreaks of MERS in Daejeon, the Republic of Korea, Int. J. Infect. Dis. 58 (2017) 37–42; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2017.02.008
- 36. C. Sherman, Health effects of cigarette smoking, Clin. Chest Med. 12(4) (1991) 643–658; https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-5231(21)00814-5
- 37. K. Palipudi, S. A. Rizwan, D. N. Sinha, L. J. Andes, R. Amarchand, A. Krishnan and S. Asma Prevalence and sociodemographic determinants of tobacco use in four countries of the World Health Organization: South-East Asia region: findings from the global adult tobacco survey, Indian J. Cancer 51 (Suppl. 1) (2014) S24–S32; https://doi.org/10.4103/0019-509X.147446
- 38. R. M. Benjamin, Exposure to tobacco smoke causes immediate damage: A report of the surgeon general, Public Health Rep. 126(2) (2011) 158–159; https://doi.org/10.1177/003335491112600202
- 39. W.-J. Guan, Z.-Y. Ni, Y. Hu, W.-H. Liang, C.-Q. Ou, J.-X. He, L. Liu, H. Shan, C.-L. Lei, D. S. C. Hui, B. Du, L.-J. Li, G. Zeng, K.-Y. Yuen, R.-C. Chen, C.-L. Tang, T. Wang, P.-Y. Chen, J. Xiang, S.-Y. Li, J.-L. Wang, Z.-J. Liang, Y.-X. Peng, L. Wei, Y. Liu, Y.-H. Hu, P. Peng, J.-M. Wang, J.-Y. Liu, Z. Chen, G. Li, Z.-J. Zheng, S.-Q. Qiu, J. Luo, C.-J. Ye, S.-Y. Zhu and N.-S. Zhong (for the China Medical Treatment Expert Group for Covid-19), Clinical characteristics of coronavirus disease 2019 in China, N. Engl. J. Med. 382 (2020) 1708–1720; https://doi.org/10.1056/nejmoa2002032
- 40. K. Vapalahti, A.-M. Virtala, A. Vaheri and O. Vapalahti, Case-control study on Puumala virus infection: smoking is a risk factor, Epidemiol. Infect. 138(4) (2009) 576–584; https://doi.org/10.1017/s095026880999077x
- 41. A. K. Boutou, G. Pitsiou, T. Kontakiotis and I. Kioumis, Nicotine treatment and smoking cessation in the era of COVID-19 pandemic: an interesting alliance, ERJ Open Res. 6(3) (2020) Article ID 00306-2020 (3 pages); https://doi.org/10.1183/23120541.00306-2020
- 42. H. A. Tindle, P. A. Newhouse and M. S. Freiberg, Beyond smoking cessation: Investigating medicinal nicotine to prevent and treat COVID-19, Nicotine Tob. Res. 22(9) (2020) 1669–1670; https://doi.org/10.1093/ntr/ntaa077
- 43. S. J. Brake, K. Barnsley, W. Lu, K. D. McAlinden, M. S. Eapen and S. S. Sohal, Smoking upregulates angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 receptor: A potential adhesion site for novel coronavirus SARSCoV-2 (Covid-19), J. Clin. Med. 9(3) (2020) Article ID 841 (7 pages); https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm9030841
- 44. K. P. F. Chan, T. F. Ma, W. C. Kwok, J. K. C. Leung, K. Y. Chiang, J. C. M. Ho, D. C. L. Lam, T. C. C. Tam, M. S. M. Ip and P. L. Ho, Significant reduction in hospital admissions for acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in Hong Kong during coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic, Resp. Med. 171 (2020) Article ID 106085 (6 pages); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rmed.2020.106085
- 45. M. A. Crackower, R. Sarao, G. Y. Oudit, C. Yagil, I. Kozieradzki, S. E. Scanga, A. J. Oliveira-dos-Santos, J. da Costa, L. Zhang, Y. Pei, J. Scholey, C. M. Ferrario, A. S. Manoukian, M. C. Chappell, P. H. Backx, Y. Yagil and J. M. Penninger, Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 is an essential regulator of heart function, Nature 417 (2002) 822–828; https://doi.org/10.1038/nature00786
- 46. D. Harmer, M. Gilbert, R. Borman and K. L. Clark, Quantitative mRNA expression profiling of ACE 2, a novel homologue of angiotensin converting enzyme, FEBS Lett. 532(1–2) (2002) 107–110; https://doi.org/10.1016/s0014-5793(02)03640-2
- 47. I. Hamming, W. Timens, M. Bulthuis, A. Lely, G. Navis and H. van Goor, Tissue distribution of ACE2 protein, the functional receptor for SARS coronavirus. A first step in understanding SARS pathogenesis, J. Pathol. 203(2) (2004) 631–637; https://doi.org/10.1002/path.1570
- 48. S. D. Crowley, S. B. Gurley, M. I. Oliverio, A. K. Pazmino, R. Griffiths, P. J. Flannery, R. F. Spurney, H.-S. Kim, O. Smithies, T. H. Le and T. M. Coffman, Distinct roles for the kidney and systemic tissues in blood pressure regulation by the renin-angiotensin system, J. Clin. Invest. 115(4) (2005) 1092–1099; https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI23378
- 49. C. Tikellis and M. C. Thomas, Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) is a key modulator of the renin angiotensin system in health and disease, Int. J. Pept. 2012 (2012) Article ID 256294 (8 pages); https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/256294
- 50. B. Coutard, C. Valle, X. de Lamballerie, B. Canard, N. G. Seidah and E. Decroly, The spike glycoprotein of the new coronavirus 2019-nCoV contains a furin-like cleavage site absent in CoV of the same clade, Antiviral Res. 176 (2020) Article ID 104742 (5 pages); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.antiviral.2020.104742
- 51. K. E. Follis, J. York and J. H. Nunberg, Furin cleavage of the SARS coronavirus spike glycoprotein enhances cell–cell fusion but does not affect virion entry, Virology 350(2) (2006) 358–369; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virol.2006.02.003
- 52. F. Li, Structure of SARS coronavirus spike receptor-binding domain complexed with receptor, Science 309(5742) (2005) 1864–1868; https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1116480
- 53. M. Saadat, No significant correlation between ACE Ins/Del genetic polymorphism and COVID-19 infection, Clin. Chem. Lab. Med. 58(7) (2020) 1127–1128; https://doi.org/10.1515/cclm-2020-0577
- 54. D. Wrapp, N. Wang, K. S. Corbett, J. A. Goldsmith, C.-L. Hsieh, O. Abiona, B. S. Graham and J. S. McLellan, Cryo-EM structure of the 2019-nCoV spike in the prefusion conformation, Science 367(6483) (2020) 1260–1263; https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abb2507
- 55. J. M. Leung, C. X. Yang, A. Tam, T. Shaipanich, T.-L. Hackett, G. K. Singhera, D. R. Dorscheid and D. D. Sin, ACE-2 expression in the small airway epithelia of smokers and COPD patients: Implications for COVID-19, Eur. Respir. J. 55(5) (2020) Article ID 2000688 (5 pages); https://doi.org/10.1183/13993003.00688-2020
- 56. J. C. Smith, E. L. Sausville, V. Girish, M. L. Yuan, K. M. John and J. M. Sheltzer, Cigarette smoke exposure and inflammatory signaling increase the expression of the SARS-CoV-2 receptor ACE2 in the respiratory tract, Devel. Cell 53 (2020) 514–529; bioRxiv preprint posted April 26, 2020; https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.03.28.013672
- 57. J. Qi, Y. Zhou, J. Hua, L. Zhang, J. Bian, B. Liu, Z. Zhao and S. Jin, The scRNA-seq expression profiling of the receptor ACE2 and the cellular protease TMPRSS2 reveals human organs susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 infection, Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 18(1) (2021) Article ID 284 (17 pages); https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18010284