Figure 1.
![Calculation of seasonal heat demand factor for a residential and commercial building – own study by M. Rozpondek and G. Kasprzyk based on [18]: (Te – design external temperature [°C], Sd – heating degree days [K·d])](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/64b9094864573c28bc2b890f/j_acee-2023-0016_fig_001.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKAV7KI53H%2F20251212%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20251212T225527Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEEQaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCIQDKNa8y2lc0a0FpyiYuha1NvRqEFP6UmSLtJsox%2FjOcIAIgRf1VR%2F2z9TtrnD%2B1m2Vt%2FH2zcHfFeVyHGIPoaWRACgAqvQUIDRACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDGtbhLw3Wdws79NonSqaBSZ07EiTRHs0TsJ4mpDSApsikNHNkUTsM6tJ1ypQquKDvIFlQRWUtKwuwfFC6Z9Qjqyv5HM13kIXVXrEfdepp9Sy2MUd9XWK25MTx2V7uXsAKua6N5eb4zfBa1ghq2egZ1WQl6SIHLSrw8S6DOT0VWnaz5FJHfarUCokR9qmEoVUEIOTO%2BUlQBSNauCvKzRSmxNmp0zpnVi5kwv9%2FXMQaGOwMuaM4LiYhTmCy9fsWWVk0NEFeaRA3yg8tZX2FfuRlyoHQ2YW5czGNxIGHEgUSg4lwM8AQyAFVAParGUKmL9SBQ4TzugsER1xEppRIfLyhzerzwVQQ526PaVDEKXvMFyMtw7ONZkZqAGpa0M2aDWbZWg0joTQL8pg8CBNOTZFM%2BR86mEUFRNAuCWGBteSKHcxE%2Fw3ls7L36RPgR9DkvxJoCyUd5o4gf95iUetR3UURlD8BlQ9of9Z4WXGHnMB0Lm%2F4qObTUUdkb789UT2ua01I%2FfhTSeJuAnD%2B5GxBSK7sShhxxe2XdkCkexV1A8aF83TOZp%2F58wJ6CIcqtLrqKHbYPfxeH2HHyRXH5K1QiMD3i8ox69eW9Mf4M%2FwCiuGkWN43%2FvfGCtH7dkna4HWEhRl26So0CAYKedoZ%2FI8ekFkXmVOoC%2BMS02UD%2FIljhtZTDV71oUTPougTD69Dh5LZSaNSkymyDsrigqCueg6yIV6gyJv%2FzWWxRFzNsz9oSuDRyGO1ONrYYf7XRpii%2Bp1QDQjiYt4zjHmYIvY2bE4Z9JrjJARwNe2iEbwXxdjK%2FtBRGGzo5nQiWVCDW54y3UWyJ3gF4FOZy2xoDTCHnlcio49EGimyfuS9yhd9E6es3lOis5SgYkN7hLQfXavcHqC17Db3LzMvnedwuBpSDCm6%2FHJBjqxAdh7oddhjlgp8XvcZM%2Fwz76vAR7667PA6svUpsHSgIi0Eecm3ayDY8IZ2m3nbkGe6Y6XbroL2Ty3B8JFqSZKoqIAznrHvmk5ALuNzWf5Xo6Gf%2FMOh2hLVoK1sflhAjVz2sstjGqy6%2F0ETMaKS6O%2FJBnfcpmBfX6h1djmwbWmBsF389tmKZ1pB3Ew5SohucOZY2c8wsrkU1hQnz5aVOUoAYjPd0rOTek6eirHpxCi%2B2uv3g%3D%3D&X-Amz-Signature=5888a286b2b1b7dab2e246f3016bdd56bf3299e9476644fcf18c4bb9efc9c098&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Figure 2.
![Principles and methods of designing low-energy buildings; own study M. Rozpondek and G. Kasprzyk based on [22]](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/64b9094864573c28bc2b890f/j_acee-2023-0016_fig_002.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKAV7KI53H%2F20251212%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20251212T225527Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEEQaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCIQDKNa8y2lc0a0FpyiYuha1NvRqEFP6UmSLtJsox%2FjOcIAIgRf1VR%2F2z9TtrnD%2B1m2Vt%2FH2zcHfFeVyHGIPoaWRACgAqvQUIDRACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDGtbhLw3Wdws79NonSqaBSZ07EiTRHs0TsJ4mpDSApsikNHNkUTsM6tJ1ypQquKDvIFlQRWUtKwuwfFC6Z9Qjqyv5HM13kIXVXrEfdepp9Sy2MUd9XWK25MTx2V7uXsAKua6N5eb4zfBa1ghq2egZ1WQl6SIHLSrw8S6DOT0VWnaz5FJHfarUCokR9qmEoVUEIOTO%2BUlQBSNauCvKzRSmxNmp0zpnVi5kwv9%2FXMQaGOwMuaM4LiYhTmCy9fsWWVk0NEFeaRA3yg8tZX2FfuRlyoHQ2YW5czGNxIGHEgUSg4lwM8AQyAFVAParGUKmL9SBQ4TzugsER1xEppRIfLyhzerzwVQQ526PaVDEKXvMFyMtw7ONZkZqAGpa0M2aDWbZWg0joTQL8pg8CBNOTZFM%2BR86mEUFRNAuCWGBteSKHcxE%2Fw3ls7L36RPgR9DkvxJoCyUd5o4gf95iUetR3UURlD8BlQ9of9Z4WXGHnMB0Lm%2F4qObTUUdkb789UT2ua01I%2FfhTSeJuAnD%2B5GxBSK7sShhxxe2XdkCkexV1A8aF83TOZp%2F58wJ6CIcqtLrqKHbYPfxeH2HHyRXH5K1QiMD3i8ox69eW9Mf4M%2FwCiuGkWN43%2FvfGCtH7dkna4HWEhRl26So0CAYKedoZ%2FI8ekFkXmVOoC%2BMS02UD%2FIljhtZTDV71oUTPougTD69Dh5LZSaNSkymyDsrigqCueg6yIV6gyJv%2FzWWxRFzNsz9oSuDRyGO1ONrYYf7XRpii%2Bp1QDQjiYt4zjHmYIvY2bE4Z9JrjJARwNe2iEbwXxdjK%2FtBRGGzo5nQiWVCDW54y3UWyJ3gF4FOZy2xoDTCHnlcio49EGimyfuS9yhd9E6es3lOis5SgYkN7hLQfXavcHqC17Db3LzMvnedwuBpSDCm6%2FHJBjqxAdh7oddhjlgp8XvcZM%2Fwz76vAR7667PA6svUpsHSgIi0Eecm3ayDY8IZ2m3nbkGe6Y6XbroL2Ty3B8JFqSZKoqIAznrHvmk5ALuNzWf5Xo6Gf%2FMOh2hLVoK1sflhAjVz2sstjGqy6%2F0ETMaKS6O%2FJBnfcpmBfX6h1djmwbWmBsF389tmKZ1pB3Ew5SohucOZY2c8wsrkU1hQnz5aVOUoAYjPd0rOTek6eirHpxCi%2B2uv3g%3D%3D&X-Amz-Signature=dc99116b4a6bd9da87408ad118fa688cffe2014600bae09e024765c9a4bd49bb&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Figure 3.

Figure 4.

Figure 5.

Figure 6.

Figure 7.
![Comprehensive control system for access, utilities, power generation, and equipment of a smart residential home – own study by M. Rozpondek and G. Kasprzyk based on [46]](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/64b9094864573c28bc2b890f/j_acee-2023-0016_fig_007.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKAV7KI53H%2F20251212%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20251212T225527Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEEQaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCIQDKNa8y2lc0a0FpyiYuha1NvRqEFP6UmSLtJsox%2FjOcIAIgRf1VR%2F2z9TtrnD%2B1m2Vt%2FH2zcHfFeVyHGIPoaWRACgAqvQUIDRACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDGtbhLw3Wdws79NonSqaBSZ07EiTRHs0TsJ4mpDSApsikNHNkUTsM6tJ1ypQquKDvIFlQRWUtKwuwfFC6Z9Qjqyv5HM13kIXVXrEfdepp9Sy2MUd9XWK25MTx2V7uXsAKua6N5eb4zfBa1ghq2egZ1WQl6SIHLSrw8S6DOT0VWnaz5FJHfarUCokR9qmEoVUEIOTO%2BUlQBSNauCvKzRSmxNmp0zpnVi5kwv9%2FXMQaGOwMuaM4LiYhTmCy9fsWWVk0NEFeaRA3yg8tZX2FfuRlyoHQ2YW5czGNxIGHEgUSg4lwM8AQyAFVAParGUKmL9SBQ4TzugsER1xEppRIfLyhzerzwVQQ526PaVDEKXvMFyMtw7ONZkZqAGpa0M2aDWbZWg0joTQL8pg8CBNOTZFM%2BR86mEUFRNAuCWGBteSKHcxE%2Fw3ls7L36RPgR9DkvxJoCyUd5o4gf95iUetR3UURlD8BlQ9of9Z4WXGHnMB0Lm%2F4qObTUUdkb789UT2ua01I%2FfhTSeJuAnD%2B5GxBSK7sShhxxe2XdkCkexV1A8aF83TOZp%2F58wJ6CIcqtLrqKHbYPfxeH2HHyRXH5K1QiMD3i8ox69eW9Mf4M%2FwCiuGkWN43%2FvfGCtH7dkna4HWEhRl26So0CAYKedoZ%2FI8ekFkXmVOoC%2BMS02UD%2FIljhtZTDV71oUTPougTD69Dh5LZSaNSkymyDsrigqCueg6yIV6gyJv%2FzWWxRFzNsz9oSuDRyGO1ONrYYf7XRpii%2Bp1QDQjiYt4zjHmYIvY2bE4Z9JrjJARwNe2iEbwXxdjK%2FtBRGGzo5nQiWVCDW54y3UWyJ3gF4FOZy2xoDTCHnlcio49EGimyfuS9yhd9E6es3lOis5SgYkN7hLQfXavcHqC17Db3LzMvnedwuBpSDCm6%2FHJBjqxAdh7oddhjlgp8XvcZM%2Fwz76vAR7667PA6svUpsHSgIi0Eecm3ayDY8IZ2m3nbkGe6Y6XbroL2Ty3B8JFqSZKoqIAznrHvmk5ALuNzWf5Xo6Gf%2FMOh2hLVoK1sflhAjVz2sstjGqy6%2F0ETMaKS6O%2FJBnfcpmBfX6h1djmwbWmBsF389tmKZ1pB3Ew5SohucOZY2c8wsrkU1hQnz5aVOUoAYjPd0rOTek6eirHpxCi%2B2uv3g%3D%3D&X-Amz-Signature=5b62135b1d6a1c112e316faa013a60ce329174383dc8e69b6eeb8d4f5303361a&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Figure 8.

Figure 9.

Figure 10.

Comparison of final energy consumption in the residential sector by purpose in 2019 – own study based on [27]
| Purpose | Share in final energy consumption, %. | |
|---|---|---|
| EU-28 | Poland | |
| Heating | 63.6 | 63.2 |
| Water heating | 14.8 | 17.3 |
| Lighting and devices | 14.1 | 10.6 |
| Cooking | 6.1 | 8.9 |
| Space cooling | 0.4 | 0.0 |
| Other end uses | 1.0 | 0.0 |
| Total | 100.0 | 100,0 |
Share of carriers in energy consumption in heating of residential buildings in EU-28 and in Poland in 2017 and in 2019* [27]
| Countries | Shares of carriers in energy consumption for heating of residential buildings | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Electricity | Heat delivered | Gas | Solid fuels | Oil and petroleum products | RES and waste | |
| EU-28 | 5.4 | 9.5 | 43.0 | 4.8 | 14.0 | 23.4 |
| Poland | 0.9 | 20.8 | 15.1 | 44.6 | 0.7 | 18.0 |
Shares of energy carriers in central heating and hot water installations in Poland in single-family buildings [32]
| Installation | Shares of energy carriers in installations | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| coal | biomass | natural gas | electricity | solar energy | heating oil | |
| central heating | 51 | 20 | 27 | - | - | 2 |
| hot water | 22 | 15 | 40 | 14 | 9 | - |