
The Impact of COVID-19 on Veterans’ Resilience, Attachment, and Negative Affect
References
- Barlow, D. H., Farchione, T. J., Sauer-Zavala, S., Latin, H. M., Ellard, K. K., Bullis, J. R., Bentley, K. H., Boettcher, H. T., & Cassiello-Robbins, C. (2017). Unified protocol for transdiagnostic treatment of emotional disorders: Therapist guide (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/med-psych/9780190685973.001.0001
- Blevins, C. A., Weathers, F. W., Davis, M. T., Witte, T. K., & Domino, J. L. (2015). The Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5): Development and initial psychometric evaluation. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 28(6), 489–498. DOI: 10.1002/jts.22059
- Bonanno, G. A. (2004). Loss, trauma, and human resilience: Have we underestimated the human capacity to thrive after extremely aversive events? American Psychologist, 59, 20–28. DOI: 10.1037/0003-066X.59.1.20
- Bonanno, G. A., Ho, S. M. Y., Chan, J. C. K., Kwong, R. S. Y., Cheung, C. K. Y., Wong, C. P. Y., & Wong, V. C. W. (2008). Psychological resilience and dysfunction among hospitalized survivors of the SARS epidemic in Hong Kong: A latent class approach. Heath Psychology, 27, 659–667. DOI: 10.1037/0278-6133.27.5.659
- Boden, M., Zimmerman, L., Azevedo, K. J., Ruzek, J. I., Gala, S., Magid, H. S., Cohen, N., Walser, R., Mahtani, N., Hoggatt, K. J., & McLean, C. P. (2021). Addressing the mental health impact of COVID-19 through population health. Clinical Psychology Review, 85, 102006. DOI: 10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102006
- Brennan, K. A., Clark, C. L., & Shaver, P. R. (1998).
Self-report measurement of adult attachment: An integrative overview . In J. A. Simpson, & W. S. Rholes (Eds.), Attachment theory and close relationships (pp. 46–76). The Guilford Press. - Byllesby, B. M., Charak, R., Durham, T. A., Wang, X., & Elhai, J. D. (2016). The underlying role of negative affect in the association between PTSD, major depressive disorder, and generalized anxiety disorder. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 38(4), 655–665. DOI: 10.1007/s10862-016-9555-9
- Carbajal, J., Ponder, W. N., Whitworth, J., Schuman, D. L., & Galusha, J. M. (2021). The impact of COVID-19 on first responders’ resilience and attachment. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 1–17. DOI: 10.1080/10911359.2021.1962777
- Cassiello-Robbins, C., Rosenthal, M. Z., & Ammirati, R. J. (2021). Delivering transdiagnostic treatment over telehealth during the COVID-19 pandemic: Application of the Unified Protocol. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 28, 555–572. DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpra.2021.04.007
- Chen, S., & Bonanno, G. A. (2020). Psychological adjustment during the global outbreak of COVID-19: A resilience perspective. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 12(S1), S51–S55. Advance online publication. DOI: 10.1037/tra0000685
- Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Routledge Academic.
- Dubey, M.J., Ghosh, R., Chatterjee, S., Biswas, P., Chatterjee, S., & Dubey, S. (2020). COVID-19 and addiction. Diabetology & Metabolic Syndrome, 14, 817–823. DOI: 10.1016/j.dsx.2020.06.008
- Ebrahimi, O. V., Burger, J., Hoffart, A., & Johnson, S. U. (2021). Within- and across-day patters of interplay between depressive symptoms and related psychopathological processes: a dynamic network approach during the COVID-19 pandemic. BMC Medicine, 19, 317. DOI: 10.1186/s12916-021-02179-y
- Fonagy, P., Steele, M., Steele, H., Moran, G., & Higgitt, A. (1991) The capacity for understanding mental states: The reflective self in parent and child and its significance for security of attachment. Infant Mental Health Journal, 12, 201–218. DOI: 10.1002/1097-0355(199123)12:3<;201::AID-IMHJ2280120307>3.0.CO;2-7
- Godara, M., Silveira, S., Matthaus, H., Heim, C., Voelkle, M., Hecht, M., Binder, E. B., & Singer, T. (2021). Investigating differential effects of socio-emotional and mindfulness-based online interventions on mental health, resilience and social capacities during the COVID-19 pandemic: The study protocol. PLoS ONE 16(11), 256–323. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0256323
- Greene, T., Gelkopf, M., Fried, E. I., Robinaugh, D. J., & Pickman, L. L. (2020) Dynamic network analysis of negative emotions and DSM-5 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder symptom clusters during conflict. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 33, 72–83. DOI: 10.1002/jts.22433
- Greene, T., Harju-Seppanen, J., Adeniji, M., Steel, C., Grey, N., Brewin, C. R., Bloomfield, M. A., & Billings, J. (2021). Predictors and rates of PTSD, depression and anxiety in UK frontline health and social care workers during COVID-19. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 12, 1882781. DOI: 10.1080/20008198.2021.1882781
- Gros, D. F., Morland, L. A., Greene, C. J., Acierno, R., Strachan, M., Egede, L. E., Tuerk, P. W., Myrick, H., & Frueh, B. C. (2013). Delivery of evidence-based psychotherapy via video telehealth. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 35(4), 506–521. DOI: 10.1007/s10862-013-9363-4
- Hair, J., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2010). Multivariate data analysis (7th ed.). Pearson Education International.
- Hoge, C. W., Castro, C. A., Messer, S. C., McGurk, D., Cotting, D. I., & Koffman, R. L. (2004). Combat duty in Iraq and Afghanistan, mental health problems, and barriers to care. New England Journal of Medicine, 351, 13–22. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa040603
- Johnson, D. C., Polusny, M. A., Erbes, C. R., King, D., King, L., Litz, B. T., Schnurr, P. P., Friedman, M., Pietrzak, R. H., & Southwick, S. M. (2011). Development and initial validation of the Response to Stressful Experiences Scale. Military Medicine, 176(2), 161–169. DOI: 10.7205/MILMED-D-10-00258
- Kalisch, R., Baker, D. G., Basten, U., Boks, M. P., Bonanno, G. A., Brummelman, E., Chmitorz, A., Fernàndez, G., Fiebach, C. J., Galatzer-Levy, I., Geuze, E., Groppa, S., Helmreich, I., Hendler, T., Hermans, E. J., Jovanovic, T., Kubiak, T., Lieb, K., Lutz, B., & Kleim, B. (2017). The resilience framework as a strategy to combat stress-related disorders. Nature Human Behaviour, 1(11), 784–790. DOI: 10.1038/s41562-017-0200-8
- Knowles, K. A., Sripada, R. K., Defever, M., & Rauch, S. A. M. (2019) Comorbid mood and anxiety disorders and severity of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in treatment-seeking veterans. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 11(4), 451–458. DOI: 10.1037/tra0000383
- Kroenke, K., Spitzer, R. L., & Williams, J. B. M. (2001). The PHQ-9: Validity of a brief depression severity measure. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 16, 606–613. DOI: 10.1046/j.1525-1497.2001.016009606.x
- Lass, A. N., Winder, E. S., Collins, A. C., & Rokke, P. D. (2020). The associations among distress tolerance, unhelpful coping behaviors, and symptoms of depression: A network analysis. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 44, 1077–1090. DOI: 10.1007/s10608-020-10131-2
- Letica-Crepulja, M., Stevanović, A., Grković, J., Rončević-Gržeta, I., Jovanović, N., & Frančišković, T. (2021). Posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms and coping with the lockdown among help-seeking veterans before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Croatian Medical Journal, 62, 241–249. DOI: 10.3325/cmj.2021.62.241
- Levine, J., & Sher, L. (2021) The prevention of suicide among military veterans during the COVID-19 pandemic. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 271, 405–406. DOI: 10.1007/s00406-020-01217-9
- Martín-Brufau, R., Suso-Ribera, C., & Corbalán, J. (2020). Emotion network analysis during COVID-19 Quarantine—A longitudinal study. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 559–572. DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.559572
- Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2016). Attachment in adulthood: Structure, dynamics, and change (2nd Ed.). The Guilford Press.
- Moccia, L., Janiri, D., Pepe, M., Dattoli, L., Molinaro, M., De Martin, V., Chieffo, D., Janiri, L., Fiorillo, A., Sani, G., & Di Nicola, M. (2020). Affective temperament, attachment style, and the psychological impact of the COVID-19 outbreak: An early report on the Italian general population. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 87, 75–79. DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2020.04.048
- Na, P. J., Tsai, J., Hill, M. L., Nichter, B., Norman, S. B., Southwick, S. M., & Pietrzak, R. H. (2021a). Prevalence, risk and protective factors associated with suicidal ideation during the COVID-19 pandemic in US military veterans with pre-existing psychiatric conditions. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 137, 351–359. DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2021.03.021
- Na, P. J., Tsai, J., Southwick, S. M., & Pietrzak, R. H. (2021b). Factors associated with post-traumatic growth in response to the COVID-19 pandemic: Results from a national sample US military veterans. Social Science & Medicine, 289, 114409. DOI: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.114409
- O’Donnell, M. L., Lau, W., Chisholm, K., Agathos, J., Little, J., Terhaag, S., Brand, R., Putica, A., Holmes, A. C. N., Katona, L., Felmingham, K. L., Murray, K., Hosseiny, F., & Gallagher, M. W. (2021). A pilot study of the efficacy of the unified protocol for transdiagnostic treatment of emotional disorders in treating posttraumatic psychopathology: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 34(3), 563–574. DOI: 10.1002/jts.22650
- Osman, A., Bagge, C. L., Gutierrez, P. M., Konick, L. C., Kopper, B. A., & Barrios, F. X. (2001). The Suicidal Behaviors Questionnaire–Revised (SBQ-R): Validation with clinical and nonclinical samples. Assessment, 8, 443–454. DOI: 10.1177/107319110100800409
- PeConga, E. K., Gauthier, G. M., Holloway, A., Walker, R. S. W., Rosencrans, P. L., Zoellner, L. A., & Bedard-Gilligan, M. (2020). Resilience is spreading: Mental health within the COVID-19 pandemic. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 12(S1), S47–S48. DOI: 10.1037/tra0000874
- Ponder, W. N., Walters, K., Simons, J., Simons, R., Jetelina, K. K., & Carbajal, J. (2023). Network analysis of distress, suicidality, and resilience in a treatment seeking sample of first responders. Journal of Affective Disorders, 320, 742–750. DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2022.09.097
- Price, M., & van Stolk-Cooke, K. (2015). Examination of the interrelations between the factors of PTSD, major depression, and generalized anxiety disorder in a heterogeneous trauma-exposed sample using DSM 5 criteria. Journal of Affective Disorders, 186, 149–155. DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2015.06.012
- Prosek, E. A., Ponder, W. N., & Ahmadi, A. (2022). Validation of the adapted to response to stressful experiences scale, Military Psychology, 1–6. DOI: 10.1080/08995605.2022.2030641
- Rasmussen, P. D., Storebø, O. J., Løkkeholt, R., Voss, L G., Shmueli-Goetz, Y., Bojeson, A. B., Simonsen, E., & Bilenberg, N. (2019). Attachment as a core feature of resilience: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychological Reports, 122(4), 1259–1296. DOI: 10.1177/0033294118785577
- Rogers, A. H., Shepherd, J. M., Garey, L., & Zvolensky, M. J. (2020). Psychological factors associated with substance use initiation during the COVID-19 pandemic. Psychiatric Research, 293, 113407. DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113407
- Sekowski, M., Gambin, M., Hansen, K., Holas, P., Hyniewska, S., Wyszomirska, J., Pluta, A., Sobanska, M., & Łojek, E. (2021). Risk of developing post-traumatic stress disorder in severe COVID-19 survivors, their families and frontline healthcare workers: What should mental health specialists prepare for? Frontiers in Psychiatry 12, 562899. DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.562899
- Seligowski, A. V., Rogers, A. P., & Orcutt, H. K. (2016). Relations among emotion regulation and DSM-5 symptom clusters of PTSD. Personality and Individual Differences, 92(1), 104–108. DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2015.12.032
- Shahan, K., Ponder, W. N., Malthaner, L. A., Jetelina, K. K., Schuman, D. L., & Carbajal, J. (2022). Resilience measured as an outcome variable in a sample of emergency medical service (EMS) professionals. Abuse: An International Impact Journal, 3(1), 12–21. DOI: 10.37576/abuse.2022.028
- Singer, T., Kok, B. E., Bornemann, B., Zuborg, S., Bolz, M., & Bochow, C. A. (2016). The ReSource project: Background, design, samples, and measurements (2nd ed.). Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences.
- Skjerdingstad, N., Johnson, M. S., Johnson, S. U., Hoffart, A., & Ebrahimi, O. V. (2021). Feelings of worthlessness links depressive symptoms and parental stress: A network analysis during the COVID-19 pandemic. European Psychiatry, 64(1),
e50 , 1–10. DOI: 10.1192/j.eurpsy.2021.2223 - Spitzer, R. L., Kroenke, K., Williams, J. B., & Loew, B. (2006) A brief measure for assessing generalized anxiety disorder (The GAD-7). Archives of Internal Medicine, 166(10), 1092–1097. DOI: 10.1001/archinte.166.10.1092
- Steele, H. (2020). COVID-19, Fear and the future: An attachment perspective. Clinical Neuropsychiatry, 17(2), 97–99. DOI: 10.36131/CN20200213
- Steele, H., & Steele, M. (2008). On the origins of reflective functioning. In F. Busch (Ed). Mentalization: Theoretical considerations, research findings, and clinical implications (Psychoanalytic Inquiry Book Series, 29, pp 133–158). Analytic Books.
- Vos, L. W. M., Habibovic, M., Nyklícek, I., Smeets, T., & Mertens, G. (2021). Optimism, mindfulness, and resilience as potential protective factors for the mental health consequences of fear of the coronavirus. Psychiatry Research, 300, 113927. DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2021.113927
- Wang, Y., Hu, Z., Feng, Y., Wilson, A., & Chen, R. (2020). Changes in network centrality of psychopathology symptoms between the COVID-19 outbreak and after peak. Molecular Psychiatry, 25, 3140–3149. DOI: 10.1038/s41380-020-00881-6
- Williamson, E. R., Hoeboer, C. M., Primasari, I., Qing, Y., Coimbra, B. M., Hovnanyan, A., Grace, E., & Olff, M. (2021). Symptom networks of COVID-19-related versus other potentially traumatic events in a global sample. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 84, 102476. DOI: 10.1016/j.janxdis.2021.102476
- Yu, J., & Mahendran, R. (2021). COVID-19 lockdown has altered the dynamics between affective symptoms and social isolation among older adults: Results from a longitudinal network analysis. Scientific Reports, 11, 14739. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-94301-6
- Zhang, X., Jiang, X., Ni, P., Li, H., Li, C., Zhou, Q., Ou, Z., Guo, Y., & Cao, J. (2021). Association between resilience and burnout of front-line nurses at the peak of the COVID-19 pandemic: Positive and negative affect as mediators in Wuhan. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing, 30, 939–954. DOI: 10.1111/inm.12847
DOI: https://doi.org/10.21061/jvs.v8i3.324 | Journal eISSN: 2470-4768
Language: English
Page range: 194 - 207
Submitted on: Nov 30, 2021
Accepted on: Jul 5, 2022
Published on: Nov 22, 2022
Published by: Virginia Tech Publishing
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services
Keywords:
© 2022 Jeremy B. Mallory, Warren N. Ponder, Tempa Sherrill, Jose Carbajal, Donna L. Schuman, Katelyn K. Jetelina, Justin Stafford, published by Virginia Tech Publishing
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.