Playing for Freedom: A Phenomenological Exploration Into Team Sports’ Perceived Influence on PTSD Symptoms in Military Veterans

Physical Activity and Sports Influence on Mental Health Outcomes

Since the American Psychiatric Association (APA) published the DSM-5 in 2013, a range of evidence-based interventions for PTSD has been developed (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2022; Moore & Penk, 2019). However, the phenomenon of high dropout rates in these trauma-focused therapies continues to present a significant challenge (Kehle-Forbes et al., 2016). It is important to understand that the effectiveness of these treatments in reducing PTSD symptoms and improving patient outcomes can differ (Moore & Penk, 2019). Furthermore, an increasing body of evidence supports the use of nonclinical interventions and complementary wellness strategies as valuable methods for managing PTSD symptoms, opening up new and intriguing possibilities in the field.

Numerous recent studies have demonstrated the beneficial effects of physical activity and exercise programs on mental health within the general population (Ramos-Sanchez et al., 2021; Singh et al., 2023). Additionally, research has extended to investigating the impact of similar programs with military veterans (Reis et al., 2022; Wheeler et al., 2020; Zhao et al., 2025). Despite existing research examining the influence of physical activity on mental health outcomes for both veterans and civilians, a significant gap persists in the literature specifically concerning the potential advantages of team sports for military veterans diagnosed with PTSD (Olvhøj et al., 2022; Pluhar et al., 2019; Zuckerman et al., 2020).

This investigation highlights the importance of distinguishing between “sport” and “physical activity,” as this distinction is essential for accurately interpreting and understanding research findings. Sport and physical activity, while intrinsically related, represent distinct constructs that exist along a continuum shaped by societal norms, advancements, and individual motivations. A person’s own interests and the societal context in which they operate play a significant role in this continuum (Malm et al., 2019; May, 2021; Piggin, 2020). Physical activity is fundamentally defined as any bodily movement that results in energy expenditure, encompassing a broad spectrum of activities that include exercise and training Caspersen et al., 1985). In contrast, sport is characterized by its competitive nature, adherence to established rules, and organized formal events, which are often accompanied by performance statistics and media coverage (Bale et al., 2012; Hallmann & Giel, 2017; Levinson & Christensen, 1999; May, 2021). This differentiation highlights the varying intentions and institutional frameworks that govern participation in these two domains.

Research demonstrates that regular physical activity significantly alleviates symptoms of depression and anxiety among both veterans and non-veterans (Rosenbaum et al., 2015; Singh et al., 2023). These findings are vital as they provide a deeper understanding of the potential of including physical activity in mental health interventions. Although variances exist in long-term outcomes (Rosenbaum et al., 2015), recent evidence underscores the potential role of physical activity in mental health interventions (Invictus Games Foundation, 2024; Singh et al., 2023; Walter et al., 2023). Furthermore, these findings suggest that participation in team sports may notably enhance mental health outcomes for individuals with mental health disorders, including veterans contending with PTSD.

Team sports show significant potential in the treatment of PTSD in veterans. However, further empirical studies are needed to comprehensively evaluate their efficacy. A growing body of research highlights the benefits of physical activity and exercise for civilians dealing with PTSD and other mental health conditions (Knappe et al., 2019; Manger & Motta, 2005; Rosenbaum et al., 2015). It also indicates that participating in sports can meaningfully reduce mental health symptoms in adults who are not veterans (Eime et al., 2010; Eime et al., 2013a; Eime et al., 2013b). Additionally, studies show that physical activity boosts overall psychological well-being and effectively alleviates PTSD symptoms in veterans (Fetzner & Asmundson, 2014; Ley et al., 2017; McDonagh et al., 2024).

Investigations into the efficacy of team sports as an intervention for veterans living with PTSD underscore the necessity for a more comprehensive understanding of this approach. Recent research demonstrates that higher-intensity physical activities and team sports can significantly enhance mental well-being (Singh et al., 2023; Yuan et al., 2025). Furthermore, these studies emphasize that individuals engaged in team sports derive greater psychological benefits than those participating solely in individual sports, providing a promising outlook. These findings further corroborate earlier research, which posits team sports as a viable intervention for psychological disorders in the general population (Andersen et al., 2018; Pluhar et al., 2019; Zuckerman et al., 2020).

Recent studies have demonstrated that sport-based interventions, particularly those occurring in outdoor settings, are effective in significantly alleviating PTSD symptoms among veterans and improving their overall quality of life (Havlick et al., 2019; Townsend et al., 2018; Walter et al., 2023; Wheeler et al., 2020). Most key studies on physical activity and veterans with PTSD were conducted before 2021, highlighting the urgent need for updated research to explore these benefits more comprehensively. Research on civilian team sports shows unique therapeutic effects on well-being through teamwork, camaraderie, and belonging (Eather et al., 2023; Rhodes et al., 2024). Participants report higher life satisfaction and lower anxiety and depression than those engaged in individual activities (Pluhar et al., 2019). This suggests that veterans with PTSD could experience improved long-term quality of life and symptom reduction. Although the mental health benefits of physical activity are well-known (Singh et al., 2023; Walter et al., 2023), there remains a gap in studying how team sports specifically impact veterans’ PTSD. Previous research has focused on broad sport for development or general well-being without addressing this group’s particular needs (Inoue et al., 2020; Meir & Fletcher, 2017; Waldhauser et al., 2021). This current study fills that gap by exploring veterans’ qualitative perceptions, providing a foundation for evidence-based programs that leverage team dynamics for psychosocial recovery and emphasizing the need for a structured theoretical framework to guide future research, policy, and veteran care interventions.

Participant Recruitment and Demographics

Participants in this study were selected through purposive sampling, which involves choosing individuals based on specific criteria (Creswell & Poth, 2017). Literature indicates that PTSD often appears as a chronic or delayed-onset condition rather than solely an acute disorder (Crocq & Crocq, 2000 (published online 2022)). Therefore, the eligibility criteria included being at least 35 years old, having been discharged from the military for at least five years, self-reporting a clinical diagnosis of PTSD, and having participated in team sports within the past 3–5 years. Research was restricted to males, reflecting the significantly larger male veteran population (Schaeffer, 2023; U.S. Census Bureau, 2021) and their increased involvement in team sports (Statista, 2025; U.S. Census Bureau, 2021). Methodologically, this study prioritized a homogeneous sample to isolate the influence of team sports on combat-related PTSD. Female veterans often experience distinct trauma profiles, including significantly higher rates of military sexual trauma (MST), which introduce complex social and psychological variables requiring separate, specialized inquiry (Galovski et al., 2022). To maintain ethical boundaries within a non-clinical research scope (Shah, 2024) and ensure the depth of the phenomenological analysis, this study focused on the male combat experience. While this limits immediate generalizability to all veterans, it establishes a specific empirical baseline necessary for future comparative research. The unique experiences veterans encounter post-discharge offer critical insights into the effects of PTSD and the potential benefits derived from participation in team sports.

Following Institutional Review Board approval, a two-stage sampling strategy was utilized. Primary recruitment employed purposeful sampling through organizations offering veteran team sports. Subsequently, snowball sampling was implemented as a secondary technique to identify additional participants who met the specific inclusion criteria. This recruitment strategy facilitated the inclusion of veterans from across the U.S., capturing a broad spectrum of perspectives across various team sports and geographic locations to ensure thematic depth.

An initial recruitment email was sent to these organizations, then forwarded to potential participants interested in the study. These individuals later contacted the researcher for more information. A follow-up recruitment email was sent containing a demographic screening form and a scheduling sheet to facilitate interview selection. Recruitment efforts yielded responses from 42 potential participants. Ten individuals met the eligibility requirements; however, two did not attend their interviews or respond to subsequent follow-up, resulting in a final sample of eight participants (n = 8) who completed the semi-structured interviews. To protect participant identities, pseudonyms were assigned during the transcription phase (Table 1).

Eight participants are sufficient for this study, as data saturation occurred by the sixth interview and no new themes emerged afterward, consistent with guidelines for deep exploration of lived experiences in hard-to-reach populations (Creswell & Poth, 2017). Due to the sensitive nature of PTSD discussions and participants’ hesitance to disclose personal trauma, recruiting these eight individuals took four months through targeted veteran sport organizations and snowball sampling, providing meaningful and reliable insights despite the small sample size.

Data Collection and Analysis

Virtual interviews were conducted and lasted between 45–90 minutes. Interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed, with each transcript and corresponding video reviewed multiple times to ensure data immersion. This process facilitated accurate interpretation and the development of detailed memos to capture personal expressions beyond the recording (Adler, 2022). The semi-structured interview guide, grounded in social-cognitive theory (SCT; Bandura, 2004) included questions about internal factors such as self-efficacy (e.g., How do you think participating in team sports has affected your mental health overall?) and external factors like social support (e.g., Describe the journey that led you to participate in team sports after your military service), along with perceptions of off-field influences of team sports. This method enabled exploration of how team environments shape behavior and perceptions.

SCT constructs guided axial coding to organize data into themes related to cognitive shifts, behavioral changes, and environmental influences, and were in line with triadic reciprocal determinism. Braun and Clarke’s (2021) thematic analysis was used for coding, starting with line-by-line descriptive and in vivo coding to develop a codebook, followed by axial coding (Miles et al., 2018) and the identification of higher-level themes through constant comparison (Glaser, 1965) and narrative analysis (Labov & Waletzky, 1997), ensuring comprehensive pattern development (Saldana, 2021).

Theme 1: Transformative Power of Team Sports

A common experience among participants was their struggle to transition from military life and reintegrate into society. This challenge often resulted in unhealthy coping mechanisms, such as alcoholism and severe drug addiction. Prior research has underscored the transformative power of team sports (Atkinson & Young, 2008; Caddick & Smith, 2014; Walter et al., 2023). The findings in this study reveal that engaging in team sports not only provides a range of health benefits but also helps veterans forge a new identity, representing a significant personal transformation. The positive impact of team sports extends beyond improved physical and mental health, influencing their daily lives and instilling a renewed sense of meaning and purpose. These experiences underscore the vital role that organized team sports can play in the ongoing recovery and rehabilitation of veterans with PTSD, providing them with a sense of purpose and meaning that is often lost in the transition from military to civilian life.

Theme 2: Holistic Therapeutic Effect of Team Sports

Participants shared in-depth reflections on their experiences with team sports and how these activities significantly contributed to their physical and mental health. They noted improvements in their overall well-being, a reduction in unhealthy coping strategies, and a perceived lessening of PTSD symptoms. Two clear subthemes were identified: (a) the concrete physical advantages of participating in team sports and (b) the abstract mental health benefits associated with them.

Theme 3: Reduction in Suicidal Thought

Besides the health advantages and a renewed sense of identity, team sports offered participants a deep sense of purpose for living. Each participant shared vivid accounts of how the relationships and structure that team sports provided transformed their lives and served as a critical support during their most challenging times. Jack reminisced about these experiences, stating, “I guarantee without team sports, I don’t think I’d be here right now.” Harry, looking back to his early days of living with PTSD, mirrored Jack’s thoughts, “Team sports helped me get out of those bumps I was in when I was going through everything…huge…one of the reasons that I didn’t commit suicide.” Wiley, after great reflection and with a shaky voice, summarized his experience, stating, “Without those team sports, I honestly can’t tell you I’d still be around…Had I not joined a team and found the right one, I can’t tell you where I am at or…IF…I was so close to that edge [suicide].”

Abner, going into vivid detail, commented:

Randy, contemplating the correct words, remarked, “It’s lifesaving. There’s a lot of days where the thought [suicide] enters my mind, and having social support from the relationships and better friends from team sports helps me overcome that during those moments.” Choosing his words carefully, Tullamore stated, “Without it I don’t think I’d be here today.” Uniformly, each participant described team sports as a central supportive structure during their most challenging times, directly linking it to their survival, continued quality of life, and well-being.

Theme 4: Team Sports as a Possible Intervention

The final theme that arose from discussions was the belief that engaging consistently in team sports could effectively alleviate symptoms of PTSD. Harry mentioned, “All the sports is what helped me…It was HUGE. Run also spoke, at length, about the holistic possibilities:

Regarding his experiences, Randy lamented, “Until team sports, I didn’t find an effective way to manage it [PTSD]. With team sports, it is better than ANY pill the VA could give me. That [team sports] should be a big part of treatment.” Abner, as colorful as ever, echoed Randy’s comments:

Jack, less colorful than Abner but no less steadfast, sums up the overall influence of team sports, adding:

Finding 1: Transformative Power of Team Sports

A growing awareness of the “transformative power of sport” has recently gained prominence (Inoue et al., 2020; Meir & Fletcher, 2017; Spaaij et al., 2016), which Inoue et al. (2020) described as improving well-being for both sport consumers and participants, a notion strongly supported by this study’s findings. The participants often shared how team sports had a deep psychological impact that extended beyond the playing field, affecting nearly every aspect of their lives, especially their mental health and overall well-being—arguably one of the most significant insights. This is consistent with recent data from the Invictus Games Foundation (2024), Singh et al. (2023), and Walter et al. (2023), as well as earlier research (Knappe et al., 2019; Manger & Motta, 2005; Rosenbaum et al., 2015). The findings add to the existing literature by showing how all the participating veterans experienced a newfound sense of meaning, appreciation, and purpose in life after their involvement, representing a meaningful change considering their post-military challenges.

Veterans encountered considerable obstacles when transitioning from military service and reintegrating into civilian life, including mental health issues, physical ailments, and social skills such as small talk (Hoppen et al., 2021; Hruby et al., 2021). However, ongoing participation in team sports facilitated a gradual transformation: helping them shed labels, redefine their identities, and rebuild self-confidence––topics that all participants actively discussed. This new insight demonstrates that consistent engagement in team sports supports sustainable recovery and reduces PTSD symptoms. The development of a “new identity,” purpose, and confidence over two to three years of regular involvement transformed their outlooks, enabling better navigation of social interactions and fostering resilience (American Psychological Association, 2018; Bezner & Held Bradford, 2020). As Horigian and colleagues (2020) emphasized, without participation in team sports, veterans are likely to face significant personal and social isolation.

This positive long-term effect on psychosocial well-being likely stems from the learning process, the challenges faced, and the structured nature of team sports, which helped the participants build confidence in overcoming obstacles. These results support the discussion on the mental health benefits of physical activity (Knappe et al., 2019; Singh et al., 2023; Walter et al., 2023) and add to existing research by highlighting how regular participation in team sports specifically aids veterans’ mental health recovery, providing a solid basis for future studies.

Finding 2: Health Benefits of Team Sports

This research supports the well-established physiological benefits of physical activity (Malm et al., 2019). Every participant mentioned several physical benefits, such as weight loss, greater muscular strength and endurance, and improved cardiovascular health. The interviews also revealed numerous intangible mental health benefits, with participants expressing how participating in team sports motivated them to strive for excellence both on the field and in everyday life.

This transformative experience allowed them to shift from the conventional portrayal of veterans struggling with PTSD to embracing the identity of warriors, as participants Jack and Abner did. This change fostered a deep sense of personal responsibility and duty, aligning with findings from previous studies (Choi et al., 2019; Erickson et al., 2011; Silverman & Deuster, 2014), which highlight their steadfast dedication to improving both their physical and mental well-being. Participants noted significant enhancements in self-efficacy and mental resilience, which they attributed to their participation in team sports. All eight participants reported a notable decrease in substance misuse, linking this positive shift to their new outlook on life. Participants abstained from drugs and moderated their alcohol consumption, reserving it for celebratory events, such as championships, while avoiding binge drinking.

Additionally, the participants reported reductions in PTSD symptoms as perhaps the most notable outcome of their ongoing participation in team sports. These reductions were evident in various ways: fewer flashbacks and nightmares, clearer thinking, refraining from catastrophizing PTSD moments, improved memory recall, no longer requiring medication for sleep, and, most crucially, avoiding engaging in destructive PTSD thoughts or the phenomenon referred to by participant Wiley as ‘PTSD one-itis,’ which can result in self-destructive behaviors. These results align with existing research highlighting the significant positive impact of physical activity and exercise in alleviating anxiety and depression disorders (Knappe et al., 2019; Rosenbaum et al., 2015; Singh et al., 2023). Furthermore, these findings support studies demonstrating the role of physical activity and sports in mitigating PTSD symptoms among military veterans (Knappe et al., 2019; Manger & Motta, 2005; Rosenbaum et al., 2015). This research offers new insights into how participation in team sports can benefit veterans coping with PTSD.

Finding 3: Team Sports as a Lifesaving Anchor

Understanding the physiological and psychological health benefits played an essential role in the personal transformations experienced by the participants in this study, leading to the formation of a new identity. The study also uncovered an unexpected finding: the lifesaving impact of team sports. Each participant reported that ongoing participation acted as a critical lifesaving factor. This involvement helped them combat suicidal thoughts (Shaw, 2020; Teo et al., 2018) and confront other serious issues like substance abuse and social withdrawal (Averill et al., 2021; Kline et al., 2021; Li et al., 2022). Given its importance, this lifesaving aspect warrants specific attention, alongside its broader benefits for mental health.

Research has examined the impact of PTSD on veterans in both clinical (Bustamante et al., 2021; Friedman, 2022; Korte et al., 2021; Schnurr, 2023) and sports (Browne et al., 2021; Hegberg et al., 2019; Pluhar et al., 2019) settings. Studies indicate that engaging in exercise and physical activity may help alleviate symptoms of traumatic stress in veterans who live with PTSD (Knappe et al., 2019; Ley et al., 2017). This study supports and extends that literature. However, notably, team sports as an intervention for reducing suicidal ideation represents a departure from established discourse.

Each participant shared spontaneous insights about how they felt they were alive because they participated in team sports. The significant factors behind this improvement included fostering social connections and friendships, drawing parallels between team sports and military experiences, finding the right team, and reconnecting with their identities prior to the onset of PTSD. Despite various perspectives, every participant emphasized the importance of social support as a standard component. This finding is consistent with previous research showing that many veterans dealing with traumatic stress often feel isolated, which can increase the risk of suicidal thoughts (Elbogen et al., 2020; Kachadourian et al., 2019; Teo et al., 2018).

The experience of participating in team sports transcended simply meeting people or forming friendships. Consistent with prior studies (Caddick et al., 2015; Eather et al., 2023; Waldhauser et al., 2021), participants reported significant improvements in their overall well-being, extending beyond sports. A key insight from this study is that they directly associated their renewed zest for life with the camaraderie they found on the field. Participants expressed feelings of support, a sense of belonging to a ‘family,’ and a feeling of safety; for them, team sports became their ‘home.’ By relying on teammates for guidance, assistance, and conversation, they realized they did not have to face life’s challenges alone. Over time, they also learned to trust civilians, building relationships gradually. They transitioned from isolation to forming friendships, romantic partnerships, and families. For these veterans, the most remarkable outcome was a self-reported absence of suicidal thoughts and self-destructive behavior. The shift from the stereotype of a veteran plagued by PTSD to thriving individuals and dedicated family men was truly exceptional.

Finding 4: Team Sports as a Holistic Intervention

Previous research has emphasized the benefits of physical activity (Knappe et al., 2019; Rosenbaum et al., 2015; Singh et al., 2023) and sports programs (Hawkins et al., 2011; Lawrence et al., 2010; Walter et al., 2023) in reducing PTSD symptoms, highlighting improvements in physical health and mental well-being. This study’s findings differ from earlier research, however, as veterans indicated that engaging in team sports was crucial for their ongoing PTSD recovery. Each participant highlighted the overall impact of team sports in alleviating traumatic stress, beyond just targeting specific symptoms like anxiety (Pluhar et al., 2019). All participants emphasized the importance of social support within team dynamics, aligning with findings by Morgan et al. (2019), Shah et al. (2022), and Waldhauser et al. (2021).

The study underscores how social support and team cohesion boost psychological health and community involvement. Participants mentioned that team sports offered a tangible way to reduce stress, whether by hitting a baseball, sacking a quarterback, or throwing a pass. These findings support recent studies on the mental health advantages of physical activity (Invictus Games Foundation, 2024; Singh et al., 2023; Walter et al., 2023), which observed reductions in anxiety, stress, depression, and mood disorders. While earlier research established the foundation for understanding these benefits, this study extends those insights by examining how team sports influence perceived PTSD symptoms. The outcomes are encouraging, with all participants reporting a notable decrease in PTSD-related symptoms such as flashbacks, intrusive thoughts, emotional numbness, self-destructive behaviors, suicidal ideation, and avoidance. Additionally, these results offer new insight into the therapeutic potential of physical activity within mental health treatment.

Several participants highlighted how participating in team sports was more effective for them than any medication or therapy the VA provided. Many noted that healthcare providers frequently resorted to prescribing medication without adequately exploring other options. Participants unanimously agreed that incorporating team sports into a comprehensive treatment approach is essential for veterans with PTSD, especially during early diagnosis and military transition. The study’s findings suggest that adding team sports to treatment plans not only boosts mental health but also establishes a foundation for organized, community-based interventions. This research underscores the therapeutic benefits of team sports and supports their official inclusion as strategies for veteran care. This is the first study, based on the author’s doctoral dissertation (Ward, 2024), to examine how team sports influence PTSD symptoms, indicating that team sports may serve as a practical and accessible intervention for practitioners.

The findings of this study emphasize the potential of team sports as an effective method for improving mental health support for veterans. They add to the existing research by offering new insights and stressing the significance of nonclinical, community-based strategies. This study underscores the necessity for further investigation into how structured team sports can be systematically incorporated into holistic care to better support veterans’ mental well-being.