Figure 1:
Estimated change in grassland area of Japan. Source: Ogura (2012).
Figure 2:
Multi-level value of semi-natural grasslands. Source: Shimada (2015).
Table 1:
“‘Tragedy of the commons’ by overuse and “‘tragedy of the commons’ by underuse.”
| ‘Tragedy of the commons’ by overuse | ‘Tragedy of the commons’ by underuse | |
|---|---|---|
| Fundamental perspective | Human–environment dichotomy – Ecosystem services are basically provided by ecosystems themselves – Ecosystem services are declined by human intervention | Human–environment interaction – Ecosystem services are also provided through the historical interactions between people and ecosystems (satoyama) – Ecosystem services are also declined by lack of human intervention. |
| Demographic drivers | Overpopulation – It often leads to excessive use of ecosystem services, which harms reproductive capacity of ecosystem and causes CPRs depletion. | Depopulation (and aging) – It often leads to decreasing use of ecosystem services, which influences biodiversity negatively and causes CPRs depletion. |
| Socio-economic drivers | High scarcity and economic value of ecosystem services – They usually enhance demands for especially provisioning service, which causes CPRs depletion – The enhanced demands are often induced by rapid industrialization, urbanization and economic globalization, in situations where “manage for use” system is deteriorating or diminishing – Overusing provisioning service is often accompanied with degradation of other type of ecosystem services, for example supporting service. Without lowering high consumption incentives, ecosystem services would be underprovided | Low scarcity and economic value of ecosystem services – They usually reduce demands for especially provisioning service, which causes CPRs depletion – The reduced demands are often induced by rapid industrialization, urbanization and economic globalization, in situations where “manage for management” system or “abandoned management” is emerging – While underusing provisioning service, demand for other type of ecosystem services, for example regulating service or cultural services, tends to be relatively higher. Without enhancing low conservation incentives, ecosystem services would be underprovided. |
| Institutional drivers | Open-access resource system (and lack of private land ownership) – As many commons researchers have suggested, when each resource user can extract the use of the other users, and when resources have low excludability, CPRs would be depleted – When there is no institutional arrangement about land ownership or relating rules, such as Ostrom’s design principle, CPRs would be depleted | High excludable resource system (and fragmentation of private land ownership) – As anticommons theorists have suggested, when each resource user can block the use of the other users, and when resources have high excludability, CPRs would be depleted – When there is no institutional arrangement about fragmentation of private land ownership, such as iriai mechanism, CPRs would be depleted |