Figure 1:
Location, political division and communities under study. Source: London et al. (2014).
Figure 2:
Hierarchical order of rules governing the Argentina case study. Source: Own elaboration.
Figure 3:
Revised core subsystems for the analysis of SES. Source: McGinis and Ostrom (2014).
Figure 4:
Ostrom’s framework for the Argentina coastal SES: most relevant second-tier variables. Source: Own elaboration.
Figure 5:
Yellow boats in White (left picture) and Villa del Mar (right picture). These boats are characteristic of artisanal fisheries in Argentina. Source: Own elaboration.
Table 1:
Summary of the main features of the study area.
| Bahía Blanca Estuary (BBE) | Monte Hermoso-Pehuén Co (MH-PC) | |
|---|---|---|
| Habitants | 300,000 | 8700 up to 100,000 in peak seasons |
| Environment | Estuarine Ecological SystemMudflats | Coastal areaSandy beachesFixed/mobile dunes |
| Estuary | Inside | Outside |
| Port | Yes | No |
| Economic activities | – Wool and meat processing – Gas and petrochemical industries – Cerri and White: Artisanal fishery | – Tourism – Artisanal fishery |
| Number of direct users | 1000 families | 45 families |
| Society | Internal conflicts | Collective actions |
Source: Own elaboration.
Figure 6:
Left panel: BBE, MH-PC and El Rincón areas localization. Source: own elaboration. Right panel: BBE and MH-PC areas. Source: Melo (2009).
Annex 1:
First, second and third variables of the SES – Working definition.
| First tier | Second tier | Third tier | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Social, economic and political setting (S) | S1 | Economic development – Sustained, concerted actions of communities and policymakers improving the standard of living and economic health of a specific area / the quantitative and qualitative changes in an existing economy | S1a | Economic sectors in the study area |
| S1b | Per capita income | |||
| S1c | Employment per sector | |||
| S1d | Access to public service (health, education, electricity, drinking water, etc.) | |||
| S1e | Income dispersion | |||
| S1f | Time allocation among the different economic activities | |||
| S1g | Specialization of stakeholders (in one of different economic activities) | |||
| S2 | Population characteristics – Development, changes and status of the human population | S2a | Number of inhabitants | |
| S2b | Population density | |||
| S2c | Gender ratio | |||
| S2d | Demographic structure | |||
| S2e | Population tendency (growth or declining) | |||
| S2f | Migration trends | |||
| S2g | Settlement patterns | |||
| S3 | Political stability – Eventual existence of a core regulatory framework for the country or area / eventual existence of defined laws / the regularity of the democratic processes | S3a | Core legal framework (national constitution and core laws) | |
| S3b | Level of norm compliance (norm stability, capacity of reinforcement, knowledge of norms) | |||
| S3c | Type of conflicts | |||
| S3d | Security and risk | |||
| S3e | Respect for democratic values (e.g. human rights, corruption) | |||
| S4 | Government resource policies – Type of resource policies adopted by the national, regional and local governments (top-down approach) | S4a | Governmental regulatory framework (for natural resources management and use) | |
| S4b | Environmental policies (at national, regional and local levels/implementation level) | |||
| S4c | Environmental regulatory and policy frameworks compliance | |||
| S5 | Market incentives – Market functioning for natural resource management and conservation | S5a | Influence of global/local markets in the area (e.g. levels of dependency of external markets, price definition) | |
| S5b | Type of products (e.g. commodities, certified products, other kind of labelling) | |||
| S5c | Access to markets (distance, commercialization channels and networks, marketing) | |||
| S5d | Demand for natural resources (from local, regional, national and international markets) | |||
| S5e | Market incentives for natural resource conservation (e.g. existence of taxes, fees and charges, tradable permits, eco-labelling, financial mechanisms, liability and compensation schemes) | |||
| S6 | Media organization – Number, diversity, freedom... of private and public media | S6a | Communication networks (e.g. existence, presence) | |
| S6b | Media deterrence capability | |||
| S6c | Interest of media in socio-environmental issues | |||
| Resource systems (RS) | RS1 | Sector(s) – Different biological production systems | ||
| RS2 | Clarity of system boundaries – Clarity of the system’s geographical, social and legal boundaries, describing if the boundaries of the studied resource system are clear, fuzzy or undefined | RS2a | Natural and ecological boundaries | |
| RS2b | Anthropogenic boundaries (e.g. concessions, conservation areas) | |||
| RS2c | Access to the resource system through boundaries | |||
| RS3 | Size of resource system – Spatial extent of each component of the resource system (private, club, open access or common pool resources) | |||
| RS4 | Human constructed facilities – Anthropogenic structures facilitating resource management | RS4a | Human constructed facilities in access | |
| RS4b | Human constructed facilities in transformation and storage | |||
| RS5 | Productivity of system – General estimation of the resource system productivity | RS5a | Productivity of the resource system (high, medium, low, exhausted) | |
| RS5b | Resource regeneration period | |||
| RS5c | Resource extraction period | |||
| RS6 | Equilibrium properties – Influences (positive and negative) on the equilibrium of the resource system (interaction between species, in social systems, or between biological and anthropological systems) | RS6a | Equilibrium properties | |
| RS6b | Natural hazards occurrence (frequency and magnitude) | |||
| RS6c | History of equilibrium properties (evidence of impacts in sub-systems and its effects) | |||
| RS7 | Predictability of system dynamics – Capacity to estimate the evolution and dynamics of the resource system and the impact of interventions or external influences on them | |||
| RS8 | Storage characteristics – Storage (memory) of the effects of disturbances on a system or sub-systems | RS8a | Storage of the effects of anthropogenic pressures | |
| RS8b | Storage of the effects of natural disturbances | |||
| RS9 | Location – Geographical location; special and temporal distribution patterns of resources units. | |||
| Governance systems (GS) | GS1 | Governmental regime type – Which actors have authority to take decisions and how they are elected (e.g. democratic, autocratic, etc.) at local, regional and national levels | ||
| GS2 | Government organizations – Permanent or semi-permanent institutions with governmental authority controlled by (national, regional and local level) | |||
| GS3 | NGOs – Different types of interacting NGOs (e.g. social, environmental, technical organizations) | GS3a | Presence and capacity building (i.e. institutions with mandate to increase the ability of direct users to govern the access and use over the resource units) | |
| GS3b | Linking (i.e. Institutions operating across governance scales) | |||
| GS3c | Bridging (i.e. Institutions operating within the same governance level) | |||
| GS4 | Property-rights systems – Presence or absence of formal property right systems for the resources (e.g. exclusive fishing rights) | GS4a | System of property right | |
| GS4b | Excludability (i.e. possibility to exclude potential users from using the resource, as territorial use privileges) | |||
| GS4c | Substractability (i.e. whether resource appropriation by one user reduce availability to others) | |||
| GS5 | Rules-in-use – Formal and informal rules in practice shaping human behavior and governing social interactions | GS5a | Operational rules (i.e. community rules established for the extraction, management, access and use of natural resources) | |
| GS5b | Collective-choice rules (i.e. collective-choice rules used to change the day-to-day operational rules related to the resource management) | |||
| GS5c | Constitutional rules (i.e. the process through which collective-choice procedures are defined and legitimized) | |||
| GS5d | Monitoring rules and process (i.e. mechanisms to observe and report changes in SES) | |||
| GS5e | Sanctioning rules and process (i.e. mechanisms to enforce the rule or punish the rule breaker) | |||
| GS6 | Network structure – Connections among the rule-making organizations and the population subject to these rules | GS6a | Horizontal (i.e. link actors with each other to act collectively for a common propose) | |
| GS6b | Vertical (i.e. link actors with other organizations or the government across levels) | |||
| Resource Units (RU) | RU1 | Resource unit mobility – Resource unit mobility | ||
| RU2 | Growth or replacement rate – Growth/replacement rate based upon the resource unit’s life cycle (e.g. reproductive age, harvesting age, growth rate) | |||
| RU3 | Interaction among resource units – Interaction among resource units (e.g. competition, collaboration) | |||
| RU4 | Economic value – Economic value of the resources | RU4a | Market value | |
| RU4b | Environmental value | |||
| RU4c | Strategic value (e.g. economic, social, geopolitical, cultural, symbolic) | |||
| RU5 | Number of units – Number of resource units / amount of resource harvested or that could be potentially harvested | |||
| RU6 | Distinctive characteristics – Markings or behavioral patterns that can be identified in resource units and affect actors’ behavior toward them. | |||
| RU7 | Spatial and temporal distribution – Availability of the resource in space and time | RU7a | Reproduction | |
| RU7b | Adult life | |||
| Actors (A) | A1 | Types of relevant actors – Actors affecting or being affected by decision-making processes related resources or resources harvesting. | A1a | Direct users |
| A1b | Number of direct users | |||
| A1c | Other actors in SES (consumers, actors in related SESs, etc.) | |||
| A2 | Socio-economic attributes of direct users – Characteristics of direct users related to social and economic dimension affecting fishing dynamics. | A2a | Sources of income (linked or not with the resource) | |
| A2b | Consumption patterns (e.g. local resources, local/imported food, shopping) | |||
| A2c | Women rights | |||
| A2d | Access to health and education | |||
| A2e | Vulnerability (e.g. social, economic, institutional, environmental) | |||
| A2f | Cultural identities (e.g. language, food, celebrations, traditions) | |||
| A2g | Housing and sanitation conditions | |||
| A3 | History of use or past experience – Chronological description of resource extracting methods, crisis and duration of the use of resources (i.e. past interactions which affect current behavior) | |||
| A4 | Location – Geographical location or dispersion patterns of direct users in relation to the resources and the market (e.g. settlements, villages, dispersion) | |||
| A5 | Leadership/entrepreneurship – Existence of, and attitude towards leadership and entrepreneurship among actors | A5a | Leadership patterns (e.g. level of acceptance, prominence, leadership models) | |
| A5b | Attitudes toward conservation (e.g. entrepreneurship, maintenance, sustainable use) | |||
| A6 | Social capital – Levels of social interaction, reciprocity and trust among actors | A6a | Degree of support or assistance (e.i. degree by which individuals can draw upon or rely on others for support or assistance in time of need) | |
| A6b | Traditional forms of collaboration (e.g. norms, habits, traditions, customs) | |||
| A7 | Knowledge of SES/mental models – Level of knowledge, understood and sense on SES conditions, perturbance patterns and possible effects | A7a | Local knowledge on SES (based on traditional or scientific knowledge) | |
| A7b | Knowledge of the effect of over-harvesting | |||
| A7c | Knowledge of the effect of social attitudes (toward resource management on the SES) | |||
| A7d | Knowledge of the effect of biological shocks | |||
| A7e | Mechanism to share knowledge about fishery | |||
| A7f | Mental models related to SES management (e.g. conservation, exploitation, human-nature relationships) | |||
| A8 | Importance of resources – Importance of resources for livelihood | A8a | Economic dependence (i.e. in which level the resource constitutes a source of monetary income and plays a major role in fishermen’s ability to sustain their livelihoods) | |
| A8b | Cultural dependence (i.e. in which level the resource constitutes a source of cultural values, practices and services) | |||
| A9 | Technology used – Type of technology used to extract, harvest and manage the resource, as well as differences in access among direct users based on access to different technologies | A9a | Ownership of different types of technology by fishermen | |
| A9b | Homogeneity (i.e. degree by which fishermen use the same technology) | |||
| Interactions (I) | I1 | Harvesting levels of diverse users – Quantity of the resource(s) harvested by different users | I1a | Harvesting level and effects on SES |
| I1b | Free-riding | |||
| I2 | Information sharing among direct users – Any present scheme of information sharing among users. | I2a | Knowledge dissemination (i.e. information about the SES variations) | |
| I2b | Information/knowhow sharing (i.e. about the SES variations) | |||
| I3 | Deliberation processes – Deliberation process used among direct users | I3a | Deliberation processes among direct users | |
| I3b | Knowledge about participation mechanisms and rights | |||
| I4 | Conflicts among actors – Existing conflicts among actors (e.g. conflict based on greed, grievance, scarcity, technology, access, power, information) | I4a | Conflicts among direct users (i.e. existing conflicts among artisanal fishermen) | |
| I4b | Conflicts with externals (i.e. existing conflicts between direct users and other relevant actors in SES) | |||
| I5 | Investment activities – Investments for improving and managing the resources (investor, amount invested and destination of investment) | I5a | Type of investment (i.e. amount and destinations of investments in harvesting, managing, transformation of products, etc.) | |
| I5b | Degree of dependency on external investments (i.e. in which level fishermen depend on external actors’ investment -public or private- in order to improve their activity) | |||
| I6 | Lobbying activities – Lobbying activities (internal, external, influence capacity, actors involved, expected outcomes) | |||
| I7 | Self-organizing activities – Self-organization activities among users for extracting resources. Include description of any solidarity activities | |||
| I8 | Networking activities – Networking activities of the actors within and outside the community to managing and harvesting. | I8a | Internal networks | |
| I8b | External networks | |||
| I8c | Partnership and cooperation | |||
| I8d | External communication channels | |||
| Outcomes (O) | O1 | Social performance measures (e.g. efficiency, equity, accountability, sustainability) – Impact of different activities on social performance taking into account the welfare of users. | O1a | Efficiency |
| O1b | Equity (i.e. distribution of benefits of the activity between users) | |||
| O1c | Socio-economical sustainability (i.e. distribution, access to SES and improving of social-economical conditions along the time) | |||
| O1d | Accountability (i.e. control of power exercised over decision makers) | |||
| O1e | Effects of deliberation processes | |||
| O1f | Empowerment (including gender analysis) | |||
| O1g | Adaptation strategies to climate change | |||
| O2 | Ecological performance measures (e.g. overharvesting, resilience, biodiversity, sustainability) – Measure the ecological performance and impact of different activities in the environmental context | O2a | Environmental sustainability | |
| O2b | Pressure on resources (e.g. increasing demand, new actors, overharvesting) | |||
| O2c | Natural habitat (e.g. biodiversity indexes, species richness, connectivity, habitat conservation/degradation/fragmentation) | |||
| O2d | Effect of SES management on natural hazards (e.g. changes in type, frequency, pattern) | |||
| O2e | Structure and function of resources (e.g. changes, interactions among resource units, trophic chains) | |||
| O2f | Soil (e.g. erosion, degradation, improvement) | |||
| O2g | Water (e.g. quality, availability) | |||
| O2h | Air (e.g. quality) | |||
| O2i | Pollution (e.g. waste generation, frequency of occurrence) | |||
| O2j | Resilience | |||
| O2k | Vulnerability | |||
| O3 | Externalities to other SES – Positive or negative impacts on other SESs without previous agreement or request | O3a | Positive externalities (e.g. water protection, biodiversity conservation, etc.) | |
| O3b | Negative externalities (e.g. water pollution, waste occurrence, etc.) | |||
| Related Ecosystems (ECO) | ECO1 | Climate patterns – Climate patterns affecting the considered SES (e.g. precipitation, temperature, sea level, extreme events, seasonal changes) | ECO1a | Extreme events ( i.e. heat events and/or winter chill, extreme rainfall , drought or flooding events) |
| ECO1b | Sea level or coastal variations | |||
| ECO1c | Temperature ( variation in temperature of sea water at the estuary and coastal ocean) | |||
| ECO1d | Annual precipitation variations (changes in historical annual patterns) | |||
| ECO1e | Season changes (changes in historical season patterns) | |||
| ECO2 | Pollution patterns – Pollution patterns affecting the considered SES (e.g. water, waste, soil, air) | ECO2a | Pollution patterns from production (e.g. industry, fishery, tourism, etc.) | |
| ECO2b | Pollution patterns from social activities (e.g. sewer discharge, waste, etc.) | |||
| ECO3 | Flows into and out of focal SES – Flows from other SESs affecting the focal SES and vice versa (economic pressures, environmental effects and social effects) | |||
Source: Own elaboration, adapted from London et al. (2013).
Annex 2:
Description of relevant variables to characterize the fishery SES.
| Variable | Description | Source |
|---|---|---|
| Social, economic and political setting (S) | ||
| Economic development (S1) | ||
| – Economic sectors in the study area (S1a) | High level of heterogeneity There are diverse sectors with enormous differences in technology applied and commercialization levels. Primary sector is comprised of artisanal fishery, high seas bottom trawl fisheries or off-shore fisheries (in the whole area) and horticulture in Cerri. Artisanal fishery and horticulture is labor-intensive sector, while off-shore fishery depends greatly on capital and technology. Secondary sector consist of petrochemical industry, gas, electricity and fish processing plants (mainly concentrated around White and Cerri). Finally, tertiary sector is represented by foreign trade and commerce (mainly through the White Port), and tourism (in Monte Hermoso and Pehuén Co area). The main channel (Canal Principal) of the Estuary houses the largest and deeper harbor system in Argentina from which most of the grain and other industrial exportations are made | INDEC; own data from unpublished survey; London et al. (2012) |
| – Per capita income (S1b) | Medium level of per capita income The population percentages by monthly per capita income are: less than $500: 4%; between $500 and $1000: 5%; between $1,000 and $3,000: 44%; between $3,000 and $5,000: 26%; between $5,000 and $8,000: 8%; more than $8,000: 1% (8% of the population ns/nc) (all values expressed in Argentinean pesos) | INDEC; own data from unpublished survey |
| – Employment per sector (S1c) | High level of heterogeneity Official data corresponds to the whole Bahía Blanca Municipality: 1% of employment belongs to primary sector, 7% to secondary sector and the rest to tertiary sector. Despite the low participation of primary and secondary sectors, employment in those activities is concentrated in the area of White, Cerri and Villa del Mar. In Pehuén Co and Monte Hermoso, employment is concentrated in tourism, other service sectors and fishery | CREEBBA; workshops and own data from unpublished survey |
| – Access to public service (S1d) | Medium to high level of access to public services. High level of heterogeneity among actors Each town has primary and secondary public school. There are two public national universities and a provincial public university in Bahía Blanca. Between 5% (Monte Hermoso and Pehuén Co) and 8% (White, Cerri and Villa del Mar) of the population has no instruction. Also hospitals or medical facilities are present in the whole area. The 95% of population has electricity. Gas natural net and sewer service exist in Monte Hermoso, Villa del Mar, Cerri and White. In Villa del Mar, White and Cerri 0.4% of the population has not access to drinking water. In Monte Hermoso and Pehuén Co 51% of the population has access to potable water by piping, 41% of the population has access to potable water through wells and 8% of the population lacks access to potable water | INDEC; workshops and own data from unpublished survey |
| – Income dispersion (S1e) | Medium to high level of inequality and poverty In 2013, the 29.3% of the total urban population in Bahia Blanca was under the poverty line and 6% was indigent. Income inequality derived from the Kuznets relation 1:10 was 18.9 in the same year. The Gini index for the region of Bahía Blanca was around 0.46. There is no official data for each town | CREEBBA – INDEC |
| – Time allocation among the different economic activities carried out in the area (S1f) | High concentration of time allocation to principal activities, with seasonality fluctuations in tourism and fishery People declare to be full-time workers at industry, commerce, fishery and tourism. Secondary activities (mainly services and construction) regained relevance during low season in the case of fisheries and tourism | Own data from unpublished survey and interviews |
| – Specialization of stakeholders (S1g) | High level of heterogeneity between stakeholders in their specialization degree There are different levels of specialization depending on the activity. Fishermen do not have a formal training, but a high traditional knowledge. In tourism, the number of professionals with formal training is even low. In commerce and service, formal education degree is high. Industrial sector exhibits a high internal level of heterogeneity in specialization | Own data from unpublished survey and interviews |
| Population characteristics (S2) | ||
| – Number of inhabitants (S2a) | Low to medium level of demographic burden Data from last census (2010) shows the following numbers of inhabitants: White: 11,115; Cerri: 13,946; Pehuén Co: 674; Villa del Mar: 353 and Monte Hermoso: 6,499. According to national definition, a population is considered as urban if it has 2,000 or more inhabitants. Then, White, Cerri and Monte Hermoso are urban populations, while Villa del Mar and Pehuén Co are still rural populations, despite they exhibit several urban features. By tourist flows in peak season, population increases up to 60,000 in Monte Hermoso (74% of dwelling houses are second homes) | INDEC; Corbella (2011) |
| – Population density (S2b) | Medium degree of population density Last census shows a density of population by municipality about 134.2 inhab/km² for Bahía Blanca, 38.3 inhab/km² for Coronel Rosales and 31.1 inhab/km² for Monte Hermoso Municipality. The inter-census variation exhibits an increasing tendency in all cases. Official data for Pehuén Co is about 24.36 inhab/km². Despite there is no official data for Cerri, White and Villa del Mar, density of population would be far below estimations for Bahía Blanca and Coronel Rosales | INDEC; workshops |
| – Gender ratio (S2c) | High degree of gender equity According to the last census, the masculinity rate (the number of males for each 100 females) is 104.8 in Monte Hermoso, 92.2 in Bahia Blanca and 95.8 in Coronel Rosales Municipality | INDEC |
| – Demographic structure (S2d) | Middle-aged population patterns Ratios of dependence (population between 0–14 years old and 65 or more years old with respect to the total population) are 51.8, 55.6 and 57.9 for the municipalities of Bahía Blanca, Coronel Rosales and Monte Hermoso, respectively. Population between 0–14 years old represents the 21, 24.6 and 23.6% for Bahía Blanca, Coronel Rosales and Monte Hermoso, while population with 65 or more years old is about 13.1, 11.1 and 13.1%. Moreover, the average age of population is about 36.9, 33.4 and 35.5. The area of Bahía Blanca has the most elderly population in the area. Monte Hermoso and Pehuén Co have the youngest and most dynamic population, while Villa del Mar presents the eldest population | INDEC, workshops and interviews |
| – Population tendency (S2e) | Increasing in Monte Hermoso and Pehuén Co; stable in the rest of the study area Total area of Monte Hermoso Municipality showed inter-census variations of 55.4% (from 1990 to 2001) and 16% (from 2001 to 2010); while Coronel Rosales and Bahía Blanca exhibited variations of 4.6 and 5.9%, and 2.3 and 2.1% between 1990–2001 and 2001–2010, respectively | INDEC |
| – Migration trends (S2f) | Stable migration trends Historically, the big-push of the population growth was the consequence of external interwar migration flows. Population in White and Cerri increased during the expansion of Petrochemical Pole and the harbor area in the 1980s and 1990s. In Monte Hermoso and Pehuén Co, the population growth has occurred due to migration from bigger cities such Bahía Blanca and Buenos Aires. Nowadays, the tendency is unclear | Workshops and interviews |
| – Settlement patterns (S2g) | Middle–sized settlements patterns The five settlements located from west to east over the coast are: General Cerri, Ingeniero White (15 km from Cerri; both belonging to Bahía Blanca Municipality); Villa del Mar (18 km from Ingeniero White); Pehuén Co (50 km from Villa del Mar; both belonging Coronel Rosales Municipality) and Monte Hermoso (20 km from Pehuén Co). Land appropriation in the area began around 1828, marked by the extermination of pre-hispanic cultures and the implementation of a private property regimen defined by rural production. All the villages have urban characteristics. White was founded in 1828. It has four distinguish settlement zones: the commercial center, the Boulevard (the oldest area, where reside the immigrants’ descendants and many of the fishermen), the 26 de Septiembre (a working-class neighborhood) and Saladero (the lowest-class neighborhood). | Workshops and interviews; Prieto (2011) |
| Ingeniero White is located 10 km from the city of Bahia Blanca. Cerri was established in 1876 and is located 15 km to the west of Bahia Blanca. Villa del Mar is a small seaside town, located 5 km from the capital of the Coronel Rosales Municipality (Punta Alta). Monte Hermosos and Pehuén Co are relatively new communities (middle 20th Century). Pehuén Co is a maritime town, located at 47 km in a straight line for the coast from Punta Alta and about 70 km by road. It has an extension of 10 km along the beach. In Monte Hermoso, the population is settled along the coast in an extension of 32 km from East to West and | ||
| Political stability (S3) | ||
| – Core legal framework (S3a) | High complexity level of core legal framework and too low participation level of the community in its establishment National Constitution, Provincial Constitution and a complex set of national, provincial and municipal laws represents the core legal framework. Local laws and regulations are subject to national laws. Nevertheless, the respective duties and mandate areas often are overlapped. Formal rules are established by top-down processes | Workshops and interviews; Rojas et al. (2014b) |
| – Level of norms compliance (S3b) | Medium to low level of norms compliance Actors usually have a partial knowledge of formal norms. Particularly, fishermen have a good knowledge about formal rules concerning access and extraction of resources (fishing quotas, bans and taxes). The actors’ perception points that law is broken because no formal effective punishment is applied | Workshops and interviews |
| – Type of conflicts (S3c) | High level of conflicts related to political stability Conflicts related to political stability are consequence of disagreements between different levels of government, political parties’ representations or power groups | Workshops and interviews |
| – Security and risk (S3d) | Medium to high level of political risk Public policy shows a high level of instability (Tommasi 2010). The Index of Economic Freedom of the Fraser Institute places Argentina at 4th in volatility. At national level, the rate of insecurity has increased. Argentina is considered a moderate risk country according to the Political Risk Index, although this analysis shows an increasing tendency. Workshops allow us to conclude that actors’ perception coincides with these observations | Tommasi (2010); Marsh-Maplecroft Political Risk Map 2014; workshops and interviews |
| – Respect for democratic values (S3e) | Medium to low level of respect for democratic values The situation has improved substantially during the last 25 years. Successive military-civic coups against national government occurred between 1930 and 1983 (in 1930, 1943, 1955, 1962, 1966 and 1976), besides several civic, political and economical crises that continue to the present days. Human rights have been violated several times and corruption is recognized by stakeholders as a truly difficult institutional problem to avoid. Between the first military coup in 1930 until the ending of the last dictatorship in 1983, military governments ruled the country for 25 years, imposing 14 dictators in successive military-civic coups against national government. From 1930 to 1983, all democratically elected government could not conclude its mandate, being interrupted by coups Although the institutional situation changed dramatically after 1983 due to the return to democracy, however, many problems related to previous period (hyperinflation, external debt and institutional crisis) contributed to the fall of President Raúl Alfonsín, who handed over his position before finishing his administration to President Carlos Menem. During the Presidency of Carlos Menem, several neoliberal structural reforms took place, leading the country to the highest unemployment rate and economic recession of latest decades. His successor, President Fernando de la Rúa, resigned amid a popular uprising. After two year of high political instability, Néstor Kirchner assumed the presidency. Argentina is governed by the Kirchnerismo since 2003. Institutional crisis seems to be deepening in the last few years | Workshops and interviews; London et al. (2013) |
| Government resource policies (S4) | ||
| – Governmental regulatory framework (S4a) | High level of complexity of governmental regulatory framework Argentina has a representative democracy with a presidential system. Particularly, there is neither self-governed community with general assembly nor public decision power over the use of resources in the area. The management and preservation of resources are legislated by the national, provincial and municipal governmental levels. The Government of Buenos Aires Province has jurisdiction over the living resources in the territorial waters adjacent to their coast up to a distance of 12 nautical miles (NM) from shore, while the remaining areas within the Economic Exclusive Zone (out to 200 NM from the baseline) are under the jurisdiction of the Federal Government. The Federal Fisheries Law 24.922 (LFP) and its Regulatory Decree 748/99 governs competition for fisheries resources between each legal community (federal and province) by setting limits on fishing and create the Consejo Federal Pesquero (CFP, see GS2). The provincial law Nº 11,477 regulates the activity under the provincial domain | London et al. (2012); Conde et al. (2009); Villasante et al. (2015) |
| Artisanal fishery is defined by law as that activity carry out “with the objective of product commercialization, through the use of horse-drawn vehicles, undecked vessels without length limit or decked vessels up to 13 m length”. Artisanal techniques are also regulated by law and differ from those practices by commercial fishery. Given the precariousness of artisanal vessels, fishery is not permitted out to the Estuary and the area until 3 NM from the coast. Exceptionally, they are authorized by Prefectura Naval Argentina (PNA, see GS2) to go out to the bordered area | ||
| – Environmental policies (S4b) | Medium level of development of environmental policies Formal legislation framework which regulates the use and control over common resources emanates from a very complex structure of organisms corresponding to the three levels of political jurisdictions (local, provincial and national). Annually, CFP fixes the maximum permitted catches by species according to sustainability parameters. The INIDEP (see GS2) should determine annually the maximum sustainable yield of species and recommend biologically acceptable catch to CFP. Provincial laws fix the ban periods for high seas bottom trawl fisheries (currently, between 1 October to 31 March). The OPDS (see GS2) is a provincial organism responsible for develop environmental policies. Bahía Blanca Municipality monitors emissions through the CTE (see GS2). There is no climate change specific mitigation strategy and a few controls on sewage | London et al. (2012); Rojas et al. (2014a) |
| – Environmental regulatory and policy frameworks compliance (S4c) | Low to medium level of environmental regulatory and policy frameworks compliance Actors in the area show a medium level of compliance with the environmental framework. Environmental policies such as emission control and extension in ban periods are in accordance with users’ demands. Nonetheless, actors claim for sewage waste treatment thrown into the estuary, the redefinition of fishery areas and the design of a management plan for the sustainable use of resources | Workshops and interviews |
| Market incentives (S5) | ||
| – Influence of global/local markets in the area (S5a) | High level of influence of local markets in fishery and tourism. Low level of influence of global markets in artisanal fishery. Relevance of global markets for activities related to industry and port Activities such as corn and meat exports, industry and agro-industry show a high dependency of external markets Local prices of fishery are set by local demand fluctuations plus some influence of international prices. Artisanal fisheries sell their products in local markets. Errazti et al. (2009) estimated that 84% of sales of artisanal fishery in Buenos Aires Province are made to intermediaries, 6% to fish shops and 10% are retail. The results of our workshops and interviews show the same pattern of commercialization. Artisanal fishermen sell to intermediaries competing against other big fisheries with participation in external markets, who fix their prices taking into account international prices. Then, international markets have an indirect influence on the fixing local prices | Workshops and interviews; Errazti et al. (2009); London et al. (2012) |
| – Type of products (S5b) | Large variety of products The products commercialized are: services (tourism, financial services and transportation), agriculture and livestock (grains and cereals, meat), horticulture, industrial products (oil, gas, petrochemical products) and fishery products (industrial and artisanal) | CRREBBA, workshops and interviews |
| – Access to markets (S5c) | High level of heterogeneity between actors in the access to markets High added value products (i.e. industrial products) are exported. Commercialization channels, marketing and networks have a high degree of development and the access to market is ensured. Most of the fishery products are retailed directly to consumers or through cold-storage chambers placed in White. The rest of the product is sold to processing plants in Mar del Plata city (about 470 km northeast from the area). Marketing and networks present a low development degree, despite four national routes and one provincial route linking the cities with a relevant influence area and the rest of the country | Workshops and interviews |
| – Demand for natural resources (S5d) | High demand for natural resources Artisanal fisheries demand fishery resources. External fishing fleets invade the area to exploit fishery resourceTourism is based on the exploitation of beaches and coastal areas. Industry demand gas, oil and water | Workshops and interviews |
| – Market incentives for natural resource conservation (S5e) | Low level of market incentives for natural resources conservations Mechanisms such as payments for ecosystem services or pollution quotas do not exist. There is a lack in governmental direct intervention to create market incentives for conservation | Workshops and interviews |
| Media organization (S6) | ||
| – Communication networks (S6a) | High presence of media Except Villa del Mar, all towns have local radios, relay antennas and local television programs. All actors have access to radio and TV | Workshops and interviews |
| – Media deterrence capability (S6b) | Medium to high level of media deterrence capability The influence of local media is relevant and higher than the influence of national media | Workshops and interviews |
| – Interest of media in socio-environmental issues (S6c) | High interest of local media in socio-environmental issues Important facts seek to be disseminated by different media and the success of the events is measured through this presence | Workshops and interviews |
| Resource systems (RS) | ||
| Sector(s) (RS1) | High degree of heterogeneity and richness The resource system includes the estuarine area and the coastal area until 3 NM, from Cerri to Monte Hermoso. Resources system has characteristics of common-pool resource (Ostrom and Ostrom 1977). The estuary contains a wide range of valued coastal resources, among which fisheries, open spaces, natural reserves and wildlife habitat can be stressed. The estuary is a series of major NW-SE tidal channels which separate extensive coastal wetlands and islands. The mesotidal range on a low relief area gives place to large tidal flats and both Spartina and Sarcocornia marshes which allow adequate conditions for benthic infauna and the development of particular biological structures which are unique on a worldwide basis. The wetland of Villa del Mar is influenced by the dynamics of the estuary and is home to species of native wildlife and some endangered species. Birdwatching is very different consisting mostly of flamingos, herons, gulls and cook crab, oystercatchers, lapwings and migratory birds like ducks to plovers and sandpipers. The fauna is completed with franciscana dolphins, sea lions and sea turtles. Pehuén Co and Monte Hermoso are located outside the area of the estuary. Both have sandy beaches, although buildings have modified completely the coastline dune system. The off-shore area near the Estuary and coasts of Monte Hermosos and Pehuén Co is the zone known as “El Rincón” (Figure 6). Despite of El Rincón does not belong specifically to the SES under study and can be seen as another focal SES itself; it has an extreme relevance because of the biologic, physical, social and economic interactions between both areas. El Rincón extends from the coast to a 50 m depth (not including the estuary). This zone can be divided into two domains, the coastal or inner shelf and the outer shelf. The coastal waters, delimited by the 40 m isobaths, exhibit generally homogeneous temperatures and salinities in both seasons. Commercial species founded in those areas are several types of fishes (i.e. Argetine hake, cuvier, croaker, weakfish, different types of rays, conger, among others), shrimps and prawns | Perillo and Iribarne (2003); Guinder et al. (2010); Zilio et al. (2013); Lopez Cazorla et al. (2014); Villasante et al. (2015) |
| Clarity of system boundaries (RS2) | ||
| – Natural and ecological boundaries (RS2a) | Fuzzy natural and ecological boundaries Historically, species catches by artisanal fishery were concentrated in the estuarine area and along the coast, up to 3 NM from the line. Nevertheless, biophysical characteristics are suffering severe transformations due to pollution, change in climate patterns, overexploitation and erosion process, leading species farther to the coast | London et al. (2012) |
| – Anthropogenic boundaries (RS2b) | Clear anthropogenic boundaries Despite marine area is not granted by concession; artisanal fishery has the exclusive right to exploit resources until 2 NM from the line (Provincial law-ranking Decree 3237/95). Moreover, trawling and the entry of ships of +25 m in length are forbidden until 3 NM territorial seas. Any type of fishery is also forbidden or limited in conservation areas: Reserva Provincial Natural Bahía Blanca, Bahía Falsa y Bahía Verde (it covers parts of the estuary and wetlands of Villa del Mar), Reserva Costera Municipal de Objetivos Definidos (located in the estuarine area) and the Geological, Paleontological and Archeological Provincial Reserve Pehuén Co-Monte Hermoso (about 17 km W of Pehuén Co to the eastern border of Monte Hermoso) | Errazti et al. (2009); London, et al. (2012); Rojas et al. (2014a) |
| – Access to the resource system through boundaries (RS2c) | Regulated access to the resource system through beaches and sea boundaries, with the exception of certain areas of MH-PC beaches; limited access through land in the area of BBE In the case of fishermen from Cerri, White and Villa del Mar, the access to the resource system is highly limited by land since the port is concessioned (it is not an open-access resource system). Only fishermen with permission can access to the resources system through the port. The coast is an open-access resource in some areas of MH-PC (with the exception of the central urban area and the reserve area). Boats access to the sea directly throughout the beach. Access is regulated but subject to fewer controls in marine areas. The open space permits outsider fleets enter to the BBE and MH-PC coastal zones, even without permission. Then, marine area looks like an open-access resource system, when access is actually regulated. | Workshops and interviews; London et al. (2012) |
| Size of resource system (RS3) | Big size of the resource system The zone affected by artisanal fishery is extended along the Atlantic coast over a stretch of more than 100 km from Cerri to Monte Hermoso. Bahía Blanca Estuary has an area of 3,000 km2; 30,000 Ha of inland and 180,000 Ha of watershed corresponds to the Reserva Provincial Natural Bahía Blanca, Bahía Falsa y Bahía Verde. The Geological, Paleontological and Archeological Provincial Reserve Pehuén Co-Monte Hermoso covers land areas belonging to the municipalities of Coronel Rosales and Monte Hermoso along over 40 km of beaches from the mouth of the estuary and Monte Hermoso. The Reserva Costera Municipal de Objetivos Definidos covers only 3 km2 | Perillo and Iribarne (2003); London et al. (2012) |
| Human constructed facilities (RS4) | ||
| – Human constructed facilities in access (RS4a) | Medium to low level of human constructed facilities The Estuary area has 5 piers, although most of that infrastructure is prepared for big ships and industrial activity. Monte Hermoso and Pehuén Co do not have any pier or mole. Vessels are trailed by pickup trucks or vehicles through the beach until the coast | Workshops and interviews; London et al. (2012) |
| – Human constructed facilities in transformation and storage (RS4b) | Medium level of human constructed facilities in transformation and storage Although the presence of several processing plants and cold storage in White and Cerri, the situation is quite different in Monte Hermoso and Pehuén Co. Nowadays, a processing plant which include fishery of both towns is being built by the Cámara de Pescadores Monte Hermoso – Pehuén Co (see GS3a). Currently, fishermen of those cities depend on Mar del Plata cold storage (396 kms from Monte Hermoso) in order to sell and process their product | Workshops and interviews |
| Productivity of system (RS5) | ||
| – Productivity of the resource system (RS5a) | High productivity of the resource system A typically measure of productivity is the annual catch per unit effort (CPUE) expressed in kg day−1. (CPUE = C/f, being f the unit of effort as a fishing day per boat, and C the total catches). Lopez Cazorla et al. (2014) shows a continue decreasing tendency in the CPUE in the estuarine area from 1992 to 2003. Starting on 2004, there was a net increase of the CPUE (mean CPUE = 247 kg day−1). Yields in El Rincón area CPUE between 2002 and 2009 presented an important increase (mean CPUE = 163.8 kg day−1). Errazti et al. (2009) classified the area as one of high productivity. Fishermen declare a high but a decreasing tendency in the productivity of the resource system. There has been an increase in discards, mainly juveniles. For example, in the case of Argentine hake, discards represented between 11% and 24% of total landings during the period 1990–1997. In economic terms, this represents annual losses in USD of 11–77 million | Workshops and interviews; Errazti et al. (2009); Lopez Cazorla et al. (2014); Villasante et al. (2015) |
| – Resource regeneration period (RS5b) | Stable resource regeneration period Regeneration of different species happens mainly between spring to mid-autumn (since October to April), in the middle and external zone of the estuary (see RS6a) | Workshops and interviews; Sardiña and Lopez Cazorla (2005) |
| – Resource extraction period (RS5c) | Stable resource extraction period Artisanal fishing is permitted during all the year. Fishermen declare that highest catches are obtained in summer season (December–March), coinciding with the banned season for bottom trawl fisheries. For shrimps and prawns the resource extraction period is mobile, but the fixed-by-law banned season for off-shore fishery is during spring season | Workshops and interviews |
| Equilibrium properties (RS6) | ||
| – Equilibrium properties (RS6a) | High complexity of equilibrium properties and high level of risk in its maintenance Calm waters and nutrient richness create favorable conditions to several migratory fishes that stay in the estuary for its feeding during youth. The inner reach of the estuary is the sector where the trophic chain of the system initiate based on a winter bloom of phytoplankton which is directly related to calm winds, no waves, higher light penetration and lower concentration of suspended sediments. Spawning occurs in El Rincón area, from spring to mid-autumn. Small juveniles entry and remain in the estuarine area until late spring (in coastal waters less than 25 m depth). Then, they move to deeper waters (25–50 m) in late autumn (age 0+). They stay there for the next 1–2 years before joining the adult stock’s seasonal movements | Sardiña and Lopez Cazorla (2005); Conde et al. (2009) |
| – Natural hazards occurrence (RS6b) | Medium to low level of natural hazards occurrence The SW winds dominate the area with a great intensity and frequency, exceeding in almost 50% in hours of occurrence in relation to SE winds. But the effects of the SE winds in combination with high spring tides generate floods in the area once or twice a year. These storms, locally known as “sudestadas” (strong southern winds and large waves) usually cause several damages in the localities and prevent the fishery | Workshops and interviews; London et al. (2012) |
| – History of equilibrium properties (RS6c) | Stable equilibrium properties until 1970s; relevant changes since then Equilibrium properties described in RS6a have been maintained for centuries. Nowadays, anthropic and natural factors are affecting the equilibrium properties. The dredging process, pollution and climatic change cause an increase in the trophic levels in the estuarine waters, modifying the species’ diet and type, quantity and quality of species. Moreover, climatic variability (i.e. higher wind speeds, more frequent wind rotations, and larger number of severe storms) in conjunction with anthropic actions (i.e. buildings on the coastal dune system and dredging) have modified the coastal geomorphology in the bathing areas, making a higher number of shoals and channels emerge | Londo et al. (2012); Sardiña and Lopez Cazorla (2005) |
| Predictability of system dynamics (RS7) | High level of predictability of system dynamics Actors have a great capacity to estimate the evolution and dynamics of the resource system and the impact of interventions or external influences due to their historical knowledge. Fishermen know when a season will be better than other depending on rainfalls, temperatures or storms. They show capacity to predict the temporal or permanent absence of some species due to overexploitation or natural conditions. Fishermen recognize that some extreme changes could be not expected by them, as the complete absence of clams during the last 10 years. Nevertheless, there is a learning-by-doing in the practice of the activity. For example, clams are now reappearing and fishermen are studying if changes in clams’ behavior are part of a cycle which would repeat in the future | Workshops and interviews |
| Storage characteristics (RS8) | ||
| – Storage of the effects of anthropogenic pressures (RS8a) | High level of storage Anthropogenic effects have consequences along large periods. During workshops, fishermen assure that only 4 years of uncontrolled high seas bottom trawl fisheries are necessary to exterminate the fishery because natural cycles are not able to compensate for the cumulative effects of anthropogenic effects. The ban area was stablished in 2004. From 2009, the biomass is yet decreasing. In the other hand, the dynamic of the estuarine system dilutes the sewer discharge and fluids influences. For that reason, the estuary still has a high level of self-depuration | Workshops and interviews; Carozza and Fernandez Araos (2009); London et al. (2013) |
| – Storage of the effects of natural disturbances (RS8b) | Medium level of storage Natural disturbance as increasing in rains or changes in tides seem to offset itself along some years. There is a fewer knowledge about new natural disturbances as changes in temperatures | Workshops and interviews |
| Location (RS9) | SW Buenos Aires Province The area is located in the southwest of Buenos Aires Province (Argentina). More precisely, the Bahía Blanca Estuary is located between 38°45′ and 39°25′ S and 61°15′ and 62°30′ W. The area of “El Rincón” is between 39°S and 41°30′ S (Figures 1 and 6) | Piccollo and Perillo (1990) |
| Governance systems (GS) | ||
| Governmental regime type (GS1) | Clear governmental regime type, although with low direct participation of actors Power is exercise though a representative democracy. Each jurisdictional order has deliberative organisms and an authority with executive power (President at national order, governor at provincial order and mayor or intendent at municipal level). They are elected by open and regular political election processes. In general, formal rules are performed by top-down processes where governmental authorities take decisions about formal rules in managing and control the SES. There is a low level of civic participation and few elements of community-based government | London et al. (2013); Rojas et al. (2014b) |
| Government organizations (GS2) | High level of complexity In fishery, the main governmental organizations are the Under-Secretary for Fisheries and Aquiculture (SSPyA) (under the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries) and the Fishery Federal Council (CFP), which consists of one representative from each coastal province, the Secretary of Fisheries, a representative of the Secretariat of Environment and Sustainable Development (SAyDS), a representative of the Ministry of | London et al. (2012); Rojas et al. (2014b); Villasante et al. (2015) |
| Foreign Affairs, and two representatives of the National Executive. The SSPyA is the enforcement authority of the LFP (see S4a). The CFP is advised by technical committees of the various fisheries, in which scientists and technicians, mainly of the National Institute for Fisheries Research and Development (INIDEP) and the provinces, are involved. The SSPyA and the CFP establish formal norms, coordination rules, catch limitations, research and development priority areas. The INIDEP and the National Service of Health and Food Quality (SENASA) are the most relevant decentralized national organizations. The coast guard organism is Prefectura Naval Argentina (PNA). It is dedicated to safeguarding navigation at sea, protecting the marine environment within the EEZ by monitoring of maritime, river, and port areas. At provincial level, the main governmental organization is the Provincial Office for Fisheries (depending on the Ministry of Land Affairs). The Provincial Organism for Sustainable Development (OPDS) is the provincial authority in environmental policy. OPDS should guarantee the sustainable and correct management of the environment, the preservation of biodiversity and the implementation of sustainable development planning. At local level, the municipalities of Bahía Blanca, Coronel Rosales and Monte Hermoso are divided into several interest areas. In Bahía Blanca, the environmental area presents four governance organisms: Sanitation, Epidemiology, Technical Executive Committee (CTE) and APELL Process | ||
| NGOs (GS3) | ||
| – Presence and capacity building (GS3a) | Moderate but increasing presence of NGOs. Heterogeneity in the level of decision power In the area of White, there are three organizations related to the fishery activity: the Chamber of Owners and Shipowners Fisheries of Bahía Blanca Estuary, the Association of Artisanal Fishermen of Bahía Blanca Estuary and the Chamber of Artisanal and Commercial Fishermen of Ingeniero White, Puerto Rosales and Bahía Unión. While the first one represents the interest of shipowners and largest businessmen, the other two organizations reflect the interest of fishermen. The last two integrated a unique NGO and divided into two institutions after a conflict in 2009 (see I4a). In the area of Monte Hermoso and Pehuén Co, it is the Chamber of Artisanal Fishermen of Monte Hermoso and Pehuén Co. At national level, local organization group around UAPA (Unión Argentina de Pescadores Artesanales)NGOs with environmental purpose are AquaMarina, Foundation for the Reception and Assistance of Marine Animals (FRAAM – Villa del Mar), Wildlife Foundation (Fundación Vida Silvestre) and The Network of Young Leaders for the Marine Conservation. AquaMarina and Wildlife Foundation protect and advances in the conservation of marine biodiversity and health of coastal ecosystems, and promote the sustainable use of marine resources. FRAAM has the aim to recover, assist and reintroduce marine specimen victims of stranding by catch, accidents, etc. The Forum for the Conservation of the Patagonian Sea and Areas of Influence create the Training Program for Young Leaders for the Marine Conservation | London et al. (2012, 2013) |
| On the other hand, the Consortium of Management of Bahía Blanca Port (CGPBB) is on charge of the operation and management of the port since their foundation in 1993. Although the CGPBB is integrated by 9 actors from different groups, none of them are fishermen. The Chemical Industrial Association of Bahía Blanca (AIQBB) is made up of industrial representatives Commerce, hotels and gastronomy are united in the Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Monte Hermoso and in the Chamber of Commerce and Tourism Development of Pehuén Co. There are also two informal neighbor associations of relevance: the Residents Association of Ingeniero White and the Neighbor Forum of “Cerri de Pie” particularly interested in environmental care In many cases, organizations are born in “spasmodic” processes. Some NGOs were created in response of certain conflict (as Cerri de Pie, which appears as a neighbor association moving against the LNG plant project) and became extremely relevant for community along some period of time. But then, institutions begin a lethargy process which implies that NGOs’ common actions not held in time | ||
| – Linking (GS3b) | Low level of linking There are few institutions operating across different governance scales. Leaders of the fishermen associations have tried to show a major presence in provincial governmental levels by transmitting directly their demands. The functioning of the formal system of rules is sometimes inefficient and modern institutions do not generate the levels of face-to-face interactions that community-based institutions can generate | Errazti et al. (2009); Rojas et al. (2014a) |
| – Bridging (GS3c) | Low to medium level of bridging Interactions within the same governance level are complex. A “silo mentality” problem can be generated if linking is not developed. There are clear coordination fails and overlapping competencies | London et al. (2013); Erazzti et al. (2009) |
| Property-rights systems (GS4) | ||
| – System of property right (GS4a) | Well-defined formal property right system The dominion of resources belongs to the Provincial (until 12 NM) and National Government (from 12 to 200 NM). Dunes, reserves and coastal areas are mainly subjected to the provincial jurisdiction. The rest of the land near the coast is mostly private property. Fishing license automatically authorize the appropriation of the resources by users at the harvest moment | London et al. (2012) |
| – Excludability (GS4b) | Medium level of excludability Fishery can be conduct only with a license provided by CFP (see GS2), which assign catch quotas by species and vessel type for each authorized fishermen. Licenses are personal and not transferable to other fishermen. The allocation of quotas is based on the amount of local labor employed, effective local investments and the history of capture and processing. By law, unloading of products should be made in port areas. Despite of the establishment of license and laws which delimitate the fishing areas (see S4a), the level of excludability is reduced for two reasons. First, in the area of Bahía Blanca Port and inside the marine areas controls fail. Users without license extract resources, or extract more than the permitted amount or species authorized by license. Second, the non-existence of port in the area of Monte Hermoso and Pehuén Co, make it impossible the conduct of landings in government-controlled areas | Workshops and interviews; Conde et al. (2009); London et al. (2013); Villasante et al. (2015) |
| – Substractability (GS4c) | High level of substractability The resource appropriation by one user reduces the availability to others, especially when off-shore fisheries enter to the artisanal fishery area | Workshops and interviews; London et al. (2012) |
| Rules-in-use (GS5) | ||
| – Operational rules (GS5a) | Medium level of operational rules The rule framework is stablished by law (see S4). Nevertheless, there are a medium level of development of community rules for the extraction, management, access and use of resources. Showily, some of these rules are in conflict with formal or legal rules. The activity is hardly ever realized individually. The techniques in use are hand line, trammel net, gill net, shrimp net or dock. Nets are funnel shaped and present lateral wings, a central bag and three different mesh sizes. Nets are placed at anchor by small boats, deployed when the tide goes out and are checked every two hours. As fishery depend on the resources availability, actors go to fish every day in high season (October to March), except when weather conditions do not permit the activity. In winter, fishermen reduce the amount of hours dedicated to fishing and devote time in related activities as the reparation of boats and nets. When resource is superabundant fishermen embarked for several days. During the last years, fishermen have changed some practices due to the reduction in resource units. They go farther away because catches are low in the inner marine zone, which also made the activity more dangerous when vessels are not prepared for off-shore areas. Even some actors work without license or outside the 3 NM area without PNA authorization. The protection and help among peers is highly valuable in these cases, because it increase the risk of the activity. Also, they have introduced the use of climate forecast tools from local or international weather stations | Workshops and interviews; London et al. (2012, 2013) |
| – Collective-choice rules (GS5b) | Low to moderate level of collective-choice rules Rules-in-use have been established throughout the practice, rather than by a deliberative process of collective-choice. The level of collective decision is increasing due to conflicts with externals (see I4b). Fishermen observe that the power of collective action can counteract the power of groups as industrials or even government. The increasing in collective-choice is consistent with a greater presence of NGOs. Artisanal fishermen agree how the distribution of fishery zones will be done between users | Workshops and interviews; London et al. (2012, 2013) |
| – Constitutional rules (GS5c) | Low to medium development of constitutional rules processes National, provincial and municipal laws determine who, how, when, and where the actors must have access to natural resources and which are the sanctions for break regulations. Internal norms are defined by three different processes: into fishermen association, by assembly or formal meeting; by the imposition of the custom and practice (eventually, leaderships are who lead the adoption of such rules and their opinion is crucial to legitimize the collective-choice); or by spontaneous meetings (i.e. when an extreme event happen). There is no mechanism of direct civic participation, such as permanent assemblies or regular consultation mechanisms, which embed collective-choice within formal constitution of rules over the use of resources | Workshops and interviews; London et al. (2012, 2013) |
| – Monitoring rules and process (GS5d) | Low level of formal mechanisms of monitoring in use; medium level of informal monitoring rules in use PNA acts as auxiliary police to control fisheries and ecological changes. The CGPBB also has the police power to control the vessel traffic. Two radars located in Pehuén Co and Coronel Rosales Port help CGPBB to monitor the access to the estuary. However, the CPGBB has recently decided to change the whole monitoring system and both radars are not currently operating. PNA mentioned the scarcity of economic resources to control all the marine space. Then, formal monitoring process fails. On the other hand, artisanal fishermen are who inform the access of non-authorized vessels to the exclusive area or about excessive catches. Actors perceive that the largest control is done by fishermen themselves. They have not policy power to enforce the rule | Workshops and interviews; London et al. (2012, 2013) |
| – Sanctioning rules and process (GS5e) | Low level of formal sanctioning; medium level of internal sanctioning process Formal sanctioning implies the take-off of the license and economic punishment. But as well as control fails, the enforcement and punishment is not effective. A formal community process of sanctioning neither exists. The social sanctioning is imposed by fishermen if a peer breaks their set of (accepted) formal and informal operational rules. The removal of associations and exclusion are the social punishment usually implemented | Workshops and interviews; London et al. (2012, 2013) |
| Network structure (GS6) | ||
| – Horizontal (GS6a) | Medium level of horizontal network structure Network structures are relatively new. Links between internal actors are increasing as responses to external threats. NGOs as Aquamarina and FRAAM work together with fishermen in conservation activities | Workshops and interviews |
| – Vertical (GS6b) | Low level of vertical network structures Fishermens associations are frequently in contact with municipal and provincial government. But in workshops and interviews fishermen expressed that their communications with government are in order to “take actions against decisions already impose from superior levels” in the structure of decision making. In reference to laws that regulate the management and use of resources, there is a clear lack of meeting points between users and different governmental levels | Workshops and interviews |
| Resource units (RU) | ||
| Resource unit mobility (RU1) | High level of mobility Fish species can move and migrate depending on their normal behavior, but they are affected by environmental conditions causing fish capture fluctuations. Shrimp migrates outside of the Estuary at the end of spring to spawn in deep-water. Several species of fishes (demersal species) spawn in the El Rincón area. Tides lead larvae to the Estuary, where they develop until juvenile stage. They migrate out to the Estuary as adult specimens (+1 year) | Conde et al. (2009) |
| Growth or replacement rate (RU2) | Growth and replacement rate are fluctuant, with a decreasing tendency Artisanal fishermen observe a decreasing of some species and an increasing presence of other. Conde et al. (2009) show a heavy drop in catches from 1984 to 2007, with a slight recovery since 2002 until the end of the period | Workshops and interviews; Conde et al. (2009) |
| Interaction among resource (RU3) | High level of interaction among resource units Fishery resources are linked in the same food chains, making ecosystem damageable and highly vulnerable. There exist competition and predation situation between resource units. [For a complete detail by species see Lopez Cazorla (1985)] | Lopez Cazorla (1985) |
| Economic value (RU4) | ||
| – Market value (RU4a) | Low to high market value, depending on the species and the added-value With respect to substitute goods, the fish filet price exceeds only the chicken price at national market, whereas other meats (beef, pork) have higher prices. Price varies according to abundance. In 2013, prices dropped about 50% as the industrial fishery ban in Monte Hermoso was lifted. Nevertheless, the price obtained by fishermen is often low in contrast to the final consumer price. Most price appropriation is carried out by cold storage plant when they take part in the marketization. This situation could change in Monte Hermoso and Pehuén Co, where artisanal fishermen are building a cooperative processing plant | Workshops and interviews; London et al. (2012) |
| Environmental value (RU4b) | High environmental value The estuary is a place of nursery for many species which then migrate to other zones around the entire Argentinean coast. While the value of environmental services has not been studied in general for the area and there is no clear data, Zilio et al. (2013) note that the social cost for the loss of the nursery service if the dredging project and construction of the LNG plant on the coast of General Cerri were carried out would be about €807.565 per year | London et al. (2012); Zilio et al. (2013) |
| – Strategic value (RU4c) | High strategic value The area is relevant as spawn, reproductive and nursery zone. Then, the related SES of El Rincon is taking as reference to define ban periods and regulations on fisheries techniques and vessels conditions. The strategic value is also important for activities in conflict with artisanal fisheries: geomorphologic conditions allow the development of a protected deep-water harbor for industry and maritime services | London et al. (2012); Zilio et al. (2013) |
| Number of units (RU5) | Decreasing number of units, but without official data The number of units has reduced since middle 1980s, with increases in 1990–1992 and 2001–2002 Conde et al. (2009). But there is no estimation of the currently available units. Fishermen have observed that the number of prawns and large species such sole and gatuso have increased their number, maybe for the extension of the ban period | Conde et al. (2009); London et al. (2012) |
| Distinctive characteristics (RU6) | Clear distinctive characteristics The main characteristic is the total length of adult fish ranges by species. Fishermen discard juveniles. Other distinctive feature is the gill color, which can be altered in the estuarine area due to anthropic effects | Workshops and interviews |
| Spatial and temporal distribution (RU7) | ||
| – Reproduction (RU7a) | Clear patterns of spacial and temporal distribution in reproduction Most of the species spawn during middle-spring to middle-autumn in the boundary of the estuary and El Rincon area | Zilio et al. (2013); Lopez Cazorla et al. (2014) |
| – Adult life (RU7b) | Heterogeneous patterns of spacial and temporal distribution in adult life Resources are present among all the year, with variations of species. Micro-localization (i.e. position of species within the area) varies according to natural and anthropic conditions. Shrimp, prawn and weakfish are in less deeper areas. There are presence of shrimp and prawn during December to mid-June and mid-July to September, weakfish during mid-August to late September (sometimes also during March and April), narrownose smooth-hound during mid-September to late November; slick bonefish during mid-August to late September, sand smelt during June and July at low tide and September on the marshes and white croaker during November to March. Soles and rays are present all year | Workshops and interviews |
| Actors (A) | ||
| Types of relevant actors (A1) | ||
| – Direct users (A1a) | Artisanal fishermen from Cerri, White, Villa del Mar, Pehuén Co and Monte Hermoso | London et al. (2013) |
| – Number of direct users (A1b) | High number of direct users From workshops and interviews, four to five hundred of families live exclusively from fishery in Pehuén Co and Monte Hermoso. On the other hand 1.000 of people depend (directly or indirectly) on fishing in Cerri, White and Villa del Mar. In 2011, fishermen confirmed the existence of 128 boats in the area of Bahia Blanca Estuary. Fishermen from Pehuén Co and Monte Hermoso declare a fleet of around 100 vessels. Nevertheless, according to 2012 official data, boats registered were 30 in White (with 150 registered jobs), 40 in Monte Hermoso and 15 in Pehuén Co (CREEBBA) | Workshops and interviews; CREEBBA |
| – Other actors in SES (A1c) | High number of other actors and high heterogeneity In Monte Hermoso and Pehuén Co, tourism activity and related commerce employ almost the rest of people not involved in fishery. Other actors related on resources management are lifeguards and rangers. Also, tourists are important given the increasing affluence and their role as direct consumers of fishery products. In Cerri, White and Villa del Mar important actors are those related to industry, production chain of fishery and involved in environmental institutions. In all the area, decision makers and governmental actors are relevant | Workshops and interviews |
| Socio-economic attributes of direct users (A2) | ||
| – Sources of income (A2a) | High dependence on the resource to sustainable livelihoods The principal source of income for direct users is the artisanal fishery | Workshops and interviews |
| – Consumption patterns (A2b) | Medium consumption of local resources All localities are close to important urban centers. Then, actors use to acquire their consumer goods (food, clothing and others) in local markets and big markets alternately | Workshops and interviews |
| – Women rights (A2c) | Medium to high level of respect for women rights Women are important in household management, in fish trade and in the fabric of fishery nets. Despite of men recognize the importance of women in the social structure, they do not have a significant representation in fishermen’s associations | Workshops and interviews |
| – Access to health and education (A2d) | Medium to high access to health and education Sanitation and education conditions are good in general (see S1d) and there is no impediment for fishermen to access those services. Young and child assign less time to acquire knowledge or formal education when they are helping their families in fishery. However, the effect seems not to be severing since high season coincides with their school breaks | Workshops and interviews |
| – Vulnerability (A2e) | High level of socio-economic vulnerability Life style is simple and fishermen seem to show medium to high poverty levels relative to the rest of the population. Fishery belongs to the informal sector of the economy, with the consequent repercussions over social conditions (see, for example, the difference in the number of boats registered and the number recognized by fishermen in the area of Bahia Blanca in A1b). Errazti et al. (2009) estimated that 30% of ships and boats are not authorized by PNA. Harvesting of shrimps and prawns constitutes the core of the informal labor market in fishery, involving a lot of women and children working in related activities. Informal users have also serious difficulties in credit access. Environmental vulnerability influence on socio-economic vulnerability because of the high dependence level on resources to sustainable livelihoods (see A2a) | Workshops and interviews; Errazti et al. (2009); London et al. (2012) |
| – Cultural identities (A2f) | Medium to high signs of cultural identities All communities speak the same language and have similar consumption patterns. However, fishermen feel as a particular group, which clearly distinguished from others. The heterogeneity between all actors and the absence of a unique cultural root have reduced the capacity to create shared codes and common rules between direct users and other relevant actors living in the area and sharing the SES. Fishery arts, familiar structures, empirical knowledge, histories about sea, holidays and festivals form part of the cultural identity of fishermen and the maintenance of traditions | Workshops and interviews |
| – Housing and sanitation conditions (A2g) | Medium level to housing and sanitation conditions All actors have real or potential access to electricity and gas. Sanitations conditions are good. Most of the families have TV, TV cable, stereo, cellular phone, refrigerator (fridge). Most of the population also has motorized transportation | Workshops and interviews |
| History of use or past experience (A3) | High relevance of the history and paste experience. Recent relevant changes Artisanal fishery started in the area of Bahía Blanca early 20th centuries due to the arrival of Italian and Spanish immigrants whose forefathers handed down sustainable fishing methods from father to son. In 1937 they grouped in the first cooperative “Asociación Pescadores de Ingeniero White”, with 150 members. Elderly fishermen remember that they could access to resources directly from the beach and fish was found in great abundance in the inner area of the estuary. The activity started around the 1950s in Monte Hermoso and Pehuén Co. During several years, fishery was destined to internal markets. The exploitation of fisheries resources for commercial purposes began in 1978 (see Villasante et al. 2015). During the last four decades, Argentina’s commercial fishery has grown significantly to the detriment of artisanal fishery. In 2013, only 14 fisheries accounted for 98% of landings. The reducing in resources availability led to the closure in 1999 of the Cooperativa Pesquera Whitense. Between 2000 and 2004, the artisanal fishery in the whole south of the Buenos Aires Province collapsed. In 2004, the government implemented fishing closures in El Rincon area as a reaction to the overexploitation and the decrease in biomass. The granting of new license is also suspended. Fishery around the area of the estuary appreciably improved after those changes in institutional framework Nevertheless, a severe conflict dominates relations between fishermen from Monte Hermoso – Pehuén Co and Bahia Blanca Estuary area since 2010. In 2010, provincial government created an official register to give eight permissions for trawling fishery to artisanal fishermen in Bahia Blanca. The change in technology was already asked for fishermen in White area | Workshops and interviews; London et al. (2012, 2013); Rojas et al. (2014b); Lopez Cazorla et al. (2014); Villasante et al. (2015) |
| With new, bigger and better prepared vessels, they could extract resources in off-shore areas. In 2012, a grant agreement was signed between the Ministry of Production of the Buenos Aires Province, the CGPBB and the Fishermen Chambers of Ingeniero White for restructuring the fishing fleet of White and for moving the entire artisanal fishing from Bahía Blanca Port to Coronel Rosales Port. The project implies the change of the classical yellow boats for trawling vessels. The idea of introducing harmful techniques causes the reaction of other internal users. The fishermens association in White was divided and fishermen from Monte Hermoso – Pehuén Co area went to the Supreme Court to seek for the abolition of the project | ||
| Location (A4) | Medium to high concentration in the location of direct users Most of the fishermen live in the area of El Sauce, 2 or 3 km to the east of the heart of Monte Hermoso. In White, they concentrate in Saladero and Boulevard neighbor (see S2g). In Pehuén Co, Villa del Mar and Cerri are more scattered | Workshops and interviews |
| Leadership/entrepreneurship (A5) | ||
| – Leadership patterns (A5a) | High level of acceptance and decision power of leaders Leaders used to be adult fishermen with experience and tradition in the activity. During conflicts among users and decision makers, they conduct actions to defend the access to resources and the sustainable management. They also are the nexus with government organizations. Sometimes leaders representing different groups enter in internal conflicts | Workshops and interviews |
| – Attitudes toward conservation (A5b) | High level of attitudes toward conservation Leaders control the activity during the ban and report the presence of trawl boats in forbidden areas. They have also spearheaded initiatives against the dredging project and extended ban periods. These attitudes may change in the case of fishermen from Bahia Blanca Estuary (see A3) | Workshops and interviews |
| Social capital (A6) | ||
| – Degree of support or assistance (A6a) | Medium level of support or assistance The intra-family bonds and the nearest group ties are important. They share information and cooperate with each other. Instead, the extra-group links are less strong. Artisanal fishermen do not always trust in other fishermen belonging to different groups | Workshops and interviews |
| – Traditional forms of collaboration (A6b) | Medium level of collaboration among actors Artisanal fishermen work in groups, which makes more feasible the access to the resource and reduces the risk of the activity. They form fleets of boats and help one another during the working day. When one of them does not achieve a profitable landing, other helps economically or offer him jobs in their vessel. These collaborative forms are usual between relatives or friends, although it is less regular between strangers | Workshops and interviews |
| Knowledge of SES/mental models (A7) | ||
| – Local knowledge on SES (A7a) | High level of knowledge of the system and the effects of disturbances The knowledge is mostly traditional, although in recent years fishermen have turned to high-education and research institutions for the analysis of anthropogenic effects | Workshops and interviews; Rojas et al. (2014a) |
| – Knowledge of the effect of over-harvesting (A7b) | High knowledge of the effect of over-harvesting There is a high level of awareness about the consequences of overfishing and the use of aggressive techniques such as trawling | Workshops and interviews |
| – Knowledge of the effect of social attitudes (A7c) | Medium level of knowledge of the effect of social attitudes Particularly, fishermen do not recognize their own responsibility with respect to the overuse of resources or other ecological damages | Workshops and interviews |
| – Knowledge of the effect of biological shocks (A7d) | High level of knowledge of the effect of biological shocks Fishermen can anticipate the consequences of some biological impacts. They predict how shrimp move according to the winds, or how the resource reacts in periods of extreme rainfall or drought | Workshops and interviews |
| – Mechanism to share knowledge about fishery (A7e) | Medium level of development of mechanism to share knowledge Information and knowledge are transmitted by word of mouth, mainly inside the intra-family or nearest groups (seeA6a), or in associations’ meetings. There is no formal media mechanism | Workshops and interviews |
| – Mental models related to SES management (A7f) | High understanding of the complexity in SES management Fishermen know that the surrounding sea region affects and depend on estuarine and coastal area. Particularly, in the description of a management plan for the sustainable use of resources, they consider that the whole SES and the related SES (El Rincon area, beaches and tourism and even the marine area beyond El Rincon) should be taken into account, as well as all interested actors should be included in the discussions. | Workshops and interviews |
| Importance of resources (A8) | ||
| – Economic dependence (A8a) | High relevance of the resource as income source Fishery sustains the livelihoods of artisanal fishermen | Workshops and interviews |
| – Cultural dependence (A8b) | High level of cultural dependence Actors identify themselves with the activity, which generate a high level of relevance of resources as source of cultural values | Workshops and interviews |
| Technology used (A9) | ||
| – Ownership of different types of technology by fishermen (A9a) | Low level of concentration of ownership of technology Artisanal fishermen hold small or medium vessels with a low or medium level of technology. There is a relatively equality in ownership. Private property dominates the activity, with the exception of the new processing plant in Monte Hermoso. Although the property of the terminal will remain under the municipality government, it will be administrated by a tripartite organization formed by: agents from municipality, artisanal fishermen and a technical manager | Workshops and interviews |
| – Homogeneity (A9b) | Medium level of homogeneity in the use of technology Although artisanal fishing is performed by minor boats, the techniques used are diverse (see GS5a). Investments in improvement of fleets and human constructed facilities (RS4) in the area of Bahia Blanca establish difference in the level of technology with respect to Monte Hermoso – Pehuén Co area | Workshops and interviews |
| Interactions (I) | ||
| Harvesting levels of diverse users (I1) | ||
| – Harvesting level and effects on SES (I1a) | Medium to low harvesting level of artisanal fishery; high level of harvesting of bottom trawl fisheries in related SES (El Rincón) Technical conditions allow extracting a.c. 10–20 crates of product a day, while trawlers are able to capture 150–200 crates a day (its mean 3–4 tns). Lopez Cazorla et al. (2014) provide that the maximum artisanal catch in Bahía Blanca Estuary during 1992–2009 was 189.6 tns in 1992. After this year, catches decreased up to a minimum of 0.6 tns in 2001–2004. Catches seem to increase steadily since 2004 reaching 61 tns for 2009. Conversely, landings in El Rincón area (its mean, off-shore fishery) increased from the 1992–1993 period (being the mean 2,632 tns) to higher values between 1994 and 2002, where the highest landing was 9,623 tns in 2001. Since 2003, landings dropped to lower values, with a mean of 4,305 tns. Official data for 2010 (Sánchez et al. 2012) describe a harvesting level of a.c. 3910 tns declared in Bahía Blanca Port. Nevertheless, the composition of landings by type of fleet shows a very unequal capacity of charge. Landings from off-shore fisheries represent about 3550 tns, while only 360 tns correspond to in-shore fleets. During the last years, trawling has been widely extended, increasing the overharvesting | Interviews and workshops; Sánchez et al. (2012); Lopez Cazorla et al. (2014) |
| – Free-riding (I1b) | High presence of free-riding The absence of strong controls causes the existence of free-riding, especially fisheries without license from other areas. Due to the extension of the area and fails in controls, external can access to the resource system by the sea | Interviews and workshops; London et al. (2012) |
| Information sharing among direct users (I2) | ||
| – Knowledge dissemination (I2a) | Medium to high level of knowledge dissemination The exchange of information is doing by word of mouth and through fisheries associations. Actors emphasize the relevance of leaders in the knowledge dissemination | Interviews and workshops |
| – Information/knowhow sharing (I2b) | Medium to high level of information sharing Information about spatial and temporal resource availability, the fishing areas with high productivity, the presence of free-riders or the weather warnings probability (storms, wind rotations) are sharing between users | Interviews and workshops |
| Deliberation processes (I3) | ||
| – Deliberation processes among direct users (I3a) | Low development of mechanisms of deliberations processes Deliberation processes occur in frequent meetings of fishermen associations. Nevertheless, processes of decision making have not been mostly formalized. Leaders have a prominent presence and relevance on deliberation processes. There is a low level of integration with other relevant actors in deliberation processes | Interviews and workshops; London et al. (2013) |
| – Knowledge about participation mechanisms and rights (I3b) | Medium level of knowledge about participation mechanisms and rights The level of participation is increasing, as well as knowledge about participation mechanisms and rights | Interviews and workshops; London et al. (2013) |
| Conflicts among actors (I4) | ||
| – Conflicts among direct users (I4a) | Low level of conflicts within the communities of Monte Hermoso and Pehuén Co; high level of conflicts between them and fishermen from Bahia Blanca area | Interviews and workshops; London et al. (2012); Rojas et al. (2014a) |
| Fishery in Cerri, White and Villa del Mar are more affected by the overharvesting of trawling fleets, the lack of control over catches, the dreadging and the industrial pollution and sewage. Then, a group of users want to turn the artisanal fleet turn into bottom trawl vessels, with the objective of participate in El Rincon area and increase their productivity (see A3). Fishermen from Monte Hermoso, Pehuén Co and some from Bahia Blanca react against the restructuring because it will mean a greater pressure over resources | ||
| – Conflicts with externals (I4b) | High level of conflicts between direct users and other relevant actors in SES The asymmetry in the access to resources between industrial (with powerful engines and storage capacities that exceed 40 tns) and artisanal fisheries have caused the increases in the economic and politic power of industrial fisheries. Some of those fisheries are from Mar del Plata, an adjacent zone of our SES. Given the exhaustion of fishery resources around the area of Mar del Plata, fishermen from that community want provincial government to reduce the currently 6 months ban to 3 months in El Rincon, to reduce the restriction area and to allow trawling within 3NM The conflicts between users are frequent in White because of pollution (fishermen versus industry interest) and their effects on the fishery resource, as well as due to the restricted access to the port and coastal area fishermen versus local decision makers). In 1989–1991, the navigation channel of Bahía Blanca Estuary was dredged to a depth of 13.5 m (45 ft) from a previous 10 m, and its development has promoted the settlement of several industries that have formed one of the most important petrochemical centres of Argentina. It supposes a large volume of sediment to be dredged and dumped on the adjacent wetlands constantly in order to maintain the channel, which modify the biological and morphological conditions of the estuary. The conflict worsened when the federal government, associated with the national oil company, planned a major Liquid Natural Gas (LNG) plant in the inner portion of the estuary. The plant would receive imported LNG from very large ships which require specific navigation conditions. Therefore, a major dredging project was designed to work in the most sensitive sector of the estuary where the very first steps in the food chain of the system occur. There was significant opposition from community and scientists, which included legal actions. The dredging could affect more than 1500 families that live directly or indirectly on the artisanal fisheries resulting in a loss of over 5 million dollars within the first 10 years after the dredging (Zilio et al. 2013). However, the project was rejected by OPDS and alternative locations are under consideration. Fishermen had confronted the municipal government and authorities of the port, interrupting communication routes or even placing the fishing boats before the dredge tasks zone | Interviews and workshops; Sunye (2006); London et al. (2012, 2013); Rojas et al. (2014b) |
| In Monte Hermoso and Pehuén-Co fishermen demand the building of a new local road to facilitate the commercialization of products between both localities. Nevertheless, other relevant actors (rangers, tourism sector and local decision makers) argue that such a road could damage the reserve area, increasing the erosion and having negative effects on tourism. Also tourism sector claims for a more bounded use of the coast and beach by artisanal fishermen in order to develop their own activity | ||
| Investment activities (I5) | ||
| – Type of investment (I5a) | Medium level of investment; high level of heterogeneity between areas The government has done the biggest investment effort in fishery during the last years. While 3 million pesos were invested to convert artisanal fishing boats in industrial vessels in BBE area, the largest investment done in MH-PC was the installation of a fish processing plant (it required an investment of 1.5 million dollars). The processing plant project has been financed by a national subsidy given to the Artisanal Fishery Chamber of Monte Hermosos – Pehuén Co | Interviews and workshops; London et al. (2013) |
| – Degree of dependency on external investments (I5b) | High level of dependency on external investment As said before, investment was realized by federal and provincial government. Fishermen do not have reinvestment ability | Interviews and workshops; London et al. (2013) |
| Lobbying activities (I6) | Low level of direct users in lobbying activities; high level of external and other relevant actors AIQBB is perceived as a pool of the largest industries of the Petrochemical Pole, whose lobbying power is turned to their own advantage. Industrial sector in Bahia Blanca has prevented local initiatives of fishermen to avoid industrial pollution and to recover the coastal access. Direct users also recognize the existence of lobbying activities by externals in fishery (i.e. fisheries entrepreneurs linked with many trawling vessels acting illegally in the area have contact with provincial decision makers). Lobbying activities could also be at the basis of conflicts related on the formal establishment of ban and forbidden areas | Interviews and workshops; London et al. (2012) |
| Self-organizing activities (I7) | Low to medium level of self-organizing activities The number of self-organized activities eventually rises when community have to face a conflict. Social organization is not spontaneous because the low level of collective action and the weakness of network structures | Interviews and workshops |
| Networking activities (I8) | ||
| – Internal networks (I8a) | Medium and increasing development of internal networks Fishermen and neighbor associations are increasing their participation in the community and extending the contact between them, above all in MH-PC region | Interviews and workshops |
| – External networks (I8b) | Low development of external networks Fishermen from Monte Hermoso and Pehuén Co are currently building networks with external actors. They recognize their relevance in knowledge and information exchange, lobbying activities and power group formation | Interviews and workshops |
| – Partnership and cooperation (I8c) | Medium and increasing level of cooperation and joint activities in MH-PC area; low level in BBE Joint activities are increasing in MH-PC area. The relationship of fishermen with the neighborhood association in Pehuén Co and Cerri, the communication between fishermen and Coast Guard, the building of the processing plant as a cooperative, show a better performance in cooperation. The need to work together with other fishermen and even with other actors’ groups has improved the mutual understanding, truth, trustworthiness and, thus, the cooperation | Interviews and workshops |
| – External communication channels (I8d) | Medium development of external communication channel Media has a relevant role as communication channel between externals | Interviews and workshops |
| Outcomes (O) | ||
| Social performance measures (O1) | ||
| – Efficiency (O1a) | Low to medium level of efficiency Conde et al. (2009) mentioned a decrease in the fishery yield. Fishermen recognize the existence of an increment in discards of both juvenile of target species and species of no or reduced commercial value. Moreover, the area for artisanal fishery has been reduced (see A3), concentrating the fishing effort of artisanals in a smaller area. Actors also admit that the reduce level of common organization influence the low level of efficiency in the activity | Workshops and interviews; Conde et al. (2009) |
| – Equity (O1b) | Medium to high level of equity The distribution of benefits is made among direct participants in fishery | Workshops and interviews |
| – Socio-economical sustainability (O1c) | Medium to low level of socio-economical sustainability As a consequence of the environmental sustainability decrease (see O2a), socio-economical conditions of local communities are in risk | Workshops and interviews |
| – Accountability (O1d) | Low level of control over the power of decision makers The accountability depends on the availability of mechanisms of common control over governmental institutions. Such mechanisms are perceived by users as extremely weak | Workshops and interviews |
| – Effects of deliberation processes (O1e) | Low to medium effects of deliberation process Deliberation processes with respect to the management of resources are incipient and collective action is not beat policy making processes | Workshops and interviews |
| – Empowerment (O1f) | Medium level of empowerment; mainly increasing in MH-PC If empowerment is understood as the community ability to participate effectively in decision-making processes improving the common-based management, then, knowledge about SES, the increasing civic participation and cooperation, the rise in NGOs presence and a better self-organization, all are increasing the empowerment in MH-PC | Workshops and interviews; Rojas et. al. (2014a,b) |
| – Adaptation strategies to climate change (O1g) | Low level of development of adaptation strategies No formal strategy has been implemented. Fishermen change the species and areas of catches according to fluctuations | Workshops and interviews |
| Ecological performance measures (O2) | ||
| – Environmental sustainability (O2a) | Low to medium level of environmental sustainability The extension of ban period has shown that species are capable of regeneration. Nevertheless, sustainability depends on the overharvesting control. The effects of the dredging as well as the vessel circulation and maintenance of the channel and harbors could sensibly reduce the ecosystem value. Potentially, these modifications of the system will be able to introduce such irreversible changes that will fully alter the ecological conditions of the whole estuary. Zilio et al. (2013) estimated the possible loss of nursery service through the added value of the fishery sector at producer prices for Bahía Blanca if the deepening of dredging process will be made. The social cost was valued in €807,565.5 per year, whereas the total cost for loss of nursery service and loss of employment sources was calculated in €3,343,487 (in an intermediate scenario) | Zilio et al. (2013), Rojas et al. (2014a) |
| – Pressure on resources (O2b) | High level of pressure on resources In 2001, CFP forecasted a tendency toward reduction in biomass. Overharvest conducted by bottom trawl fisheries, pollution and dredging process into the estuary, all mean heavy pressure factors on resources. The problem with the intensification of fishing efforts outside of the SES area is that this might neutralize the conservation objectives inside the area, especially when the access is not controlled | CFP (2001), Lopez Cazorla et al. (2014) |
| – Natural habitat (O2c) | Low level of natural habitat conservation Natural habitat has suffered degradation, especially in the estuary area due to pollution and dredging. Species richness has been reduced. Started links of trophic chains are on risk, being on risk all the natural system of the SES and related SES | London et al (2013); Rojas et al. (2014b) |
| – Effect of SES management on natural hazards (O2d) | Low to medium level of users’ capacity to face natural disasters Type, frequency and patterns of storms have changed. Fishermen detected more intensive storms but of minor duration. Contact with PNA and other institutions permits fishermen to access to technology of prediction and localization of storms into the sea | Workshops and interviews |
| – Structure and function of resources (O2e) | Medium to high level of changes in resource units’ interactions The capture proportion of fish species has changed. Lopez Cazorla et al. (2014) mentioned the possibility of trophic cascade effects due to the overfishing and the degradation of the benthic environment produced by bottom trawls. Alterations in the composition of species and migrations trends, shifts in the reproductive behavior and species extinction can be the outcomes of the trophic cascade effects | Workshops and interviews; Lopez Cazorla et al. (2014) |
| – Soil (O2f) | High to medium level of erosion and degradation in coastal areas For further information see Rojas et al. (2014b) | Rojas et al. (2014a,b) |
| – Water (O2g) | Medium to high level of water pollution Water pollution in the estuary area is due to untreated sewage discharge. Other relevant source of pollution are the open-air garbage disposal (located in Coronel Rosales and Monte Hermoso) and the industry | London et al. (2013) |
| – Air (O2h) | High quality level of air in Monte Hermoso and Pehuén Co; low to medium level quality in the area of Bahía BlancaAir quality reduces in Bahia Blanca area due to fumes and ashes from Industrial Pole | London et al. (2013) |
| – Pollution (O2i) | Medium to high level of pollutionUrban pattern pollution (see ECO2) affects directly the estuarine and coastal area, having more severe effects over the BBE zone | London et al. (2013) |
| – Resilience (O2j) | Low level of resilience The area of the estuary has a very low residence time (estimated in 28 days), any suspended sediment concentration that will be removed during the dredging will have a long residence time within the area and necessarily affect the levels of light penetration and, consequently, phytoplankton, zooplankton and benthic populations growth causing the disappearance of the resource from the beginning of the trophic chain | Piccolo and Perillo, (1990); Zilio et al. (2013). |
| – Vulnerability (O2k) | High level of vulnerability The complexity of tropic chain, the characteristics of the area (migration patterns of species, different stage of the life cycle in different areas, etc.), the anthropic effects and the biological and morphological conditions make the SES extremely vulnerable. In fact, estuaries are one of the most vulnerable ecosystems in marine areas | Sladek-Nowlis and Friedlander (2004); Zilio et al. (2013) |
| Externalities to other SES (O3) | ||
| – Positive externalities (O3a) | Medium level of positive externalities into the SES Fishermen help to preserve turtles and other non-commercial species, protecting the biodiversity. They notify when a turtle or dolphin have been caught by the their fishing net, allowing environmental associations to monitor the species | London et al. (2013) |
| – Negative externalities (O3b) | Low level of negative externalities Fishery produces certain level of pollution due to cleanup of species at the beach. Also, noise and air pollution on the beaches of Monte Hermoso and Pehuén Co are consequence of the trawl machine of vessels. Mortality of non-commercial species or juveniles catching by nets are other negative externalities | London et al. (2013) |
| Related ecosystems (ECO) | ||
| Climate patterns (ECO1) | ||
| – Extreme events (ECO1a) | Medium level of occurrence of extreme events The strongest storms associated with winds from the S-SE-SW occurred during July (winter), December and January (summer). Winds were recorded up to 100 km/h | London et al. (2013). |
| – Sea level or coastal variations (ECO1b) | Medium to high variations in sea level and coastal characteristics Analysis of tides records of the study area show that the mean sea level increase for Argentina is estimated in 1.6 mm/year from data starting in 1900. Lopez Cazorla et al. (2014) found significant variations in salinity in the estuarine area, from 1992 to 2009 | London et al. (2013); Lopez Cazorla et al. (2014) |
| – Temperature (ECO1c) | Medium to high level of variations in temperature of air and water The study zone has temperate climates: annual temperatures between 14 and 20 °C. Four seasons well defined: spring, summer, autumn and winter. The mean temperature in January (summer) is 24 °C and in July (winter) is 8 °C. The frosts are extended from May to the beginning of October. In the last 50 years (1951–2000), the Bahia Blanca Estuary has registered an increase of 0.7 °C (0.14 °C per decade) in mean annual temperatures. In the estuary, the air temperature presents mean daily values of 20.5 °C (maximum temperatures), 14.5 °C (mean temperatures) and 8.7 °C (minimum temperatures). In Monte Hermoso the mean temperature of 2008–2011 period was 15.2 °C. While in Pehuén Co was 14.3 °C. In Monte Hermoso variations in the annual mean temperature were observed with an increase of 0.6 °C from 2008 to 2009 and a decrease of 1.4 °C for 2010. In Pehuén Co the annual mean temperature has an increase from 12.5 °C in 2005 to 15.3 °C in 2009. The mean water temperature for the period 2000–2007 (14.5 °C) is lower than mean annual values of 15.2 °C and 15 °C registered in Puerto Cuatreros (period 1967–1984) and in Ingeniero White (period 1979–1985), respectively. The mean water temperature in the estuary is of 7 °C in winter and 26 °C in summer. In the zone of Pehuén Co and Monte Hermoso these extreme values change between 7 °C in winter and 27 °C in summer. The maximum temperatures registered in the coastal cities of Monte Hermoso and Pehuén Co occurred in January (summer) with values up to 40 °C. The largest duration of heat wave lasted 8 days with minimum temperatures of 30 °C during the night. The historical coldest wave was registered in winter with values of –10 °C | London et al. (2013) |
| Annual precipitation variations (ECO1d) | Medium to high changes in historical annual patterns of precipitations The period 2005 to 2011 was characterized by a drought that affected all the study area. In general, the study area is characterized by alternating wet and dry periods. The precipitations in the zone vary between 500 and 1000 annual mm. The coastal cities of Monte Hermoso and Pehuén Co were characterized since 2005 to 2011 by predominant dry periods. Monte Hermoso in 2010 registered the maximum precipitations with 525.6 mm. In Pehuén Co the rainiest year was 2007 with 490 mm. Currently, precipitation seem to be increasing heavily | London et al. (2013) |
| Season changes (ECO1e) | Medium to high changes in historical season patterns Particularly, winter and summer are longer than usual, while autumn and spring become short | London et al. (2013) |
| Pollution patterns (ECO2) | ||
| – Pollution patterns from production (ECO2a) | High levels of pollution from production Although petrochemical effluents were high from the 1970s to middle 1990s, strong regulations and control over the industries have resulted in a significant reduction of the industrial pollution in the estuary. Nonetheless, levels continue being high | London et al. (2013) |
| – Pollution patterns from social activities (ECO2b) | High levels of pollution from social activities Untreated sewage discharge is very relevant in all communities. Also there is a medium level of waste generation in coastal areas due to tourism | London et al. (2013) |
| Flows into and out of focal SES (ECO3) | High relevance of flows into and out of focal SES Given the migratory cycle of species, overexploitation in the area of El Rincón affects directly the spawn and reproduction of species catched by artisanal fishery in the coastal area until 3 NM and into the estuary. Similar conditions of harvesting levels affect the rest of the Argentinean coast near the area. From 1992 to 1998 the number of industrial vessels targeting striped weakfish at the northern continental shelf of Argentina has doubled, and the amount of effort measured in fishing hours has quadruplicated (Ruarte et al. 2000). Lopez Cazorla et al. (2014) conclude that the landings of the artisanal fishery operating in the Bahía Blanca Estuary were affected by the increasing fishing pressure exerted by the industrial fishery fleet of El Ricnón area. The overexploitation along the whole marine area of the Buenos Aires Province affects directly the outcome into the estuary and coastal zone. At the same time, the estuary mouth is the spawning ground for many species which migrate toward the rest of the marine areas in Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil. Then, it is generating a positive and very relevant flow out of the focal SES Other focal and relevant SES in MH-PC is the tourism, which supposes the intensive use of coastal resources. Actors involving in tourism compete against fishermen for the use of the beach and the access to the coast | Ruarte et al. (2000); Perrotta et al. (2007); London et al. (2012); Lopez Cazorla et al. (2014) |
Data from INDEC corresponds to Censo Nacional de Población, Hogares y Viviendas 2010 and Dirección Provincial de Estadística y Planificación General 2005, database: Redatam + SP. See http://www.indec.gov.ar Data from CREEBBA can be consulted at http://www.creebba.org.ar.
Source: Own elaboration.