Figure 1
The study area: Thuy Dien village in Tam Giang Lagoon.
Figure 2
The density of resource use, Tam Giang Lagoon, mostly showing net-enclosures and fish corrals (Tuyen 2006).
Figure 3
Resource use in the Sam Chuon area in 2005 (CBRM Project 2006).
Figure 4
Aquaculture earth ponds (Photo by Huong 2006).
Figure 5
A model of net-enclosure combining an aquaculture plot and fish corrals.
Figure 6
Lagoon user groups among fishing households in Thuy Dien village.
Table 1
Major changes in property rights and resource access.
| Changes in Property Rights in Vietnam | |
| Prior to 1975 | Before the re-unification of Vietnam Lagoon areas: government property managed by village authorities Some fishing grounds had became de facto private |
| 1975–1986 | Collectivization and centrally planned economy Government ownership of all natural resources Fishers were integrated in fishing units “Production collectives” |
| Post-1986 | Policy reform: market-oriented economy Land use rights have been granted to households and individuals and made transferable Lagoon resources: government property under the management of lower levels of administration (province, district, commune) |
Table 2
Type of lagoon use in the Sam Chuon area.
| Type of lagoon use | Description |
| 1. Upper earth pond | Since the late 1990s, unproductive rice fields have been converted into aquaculture ponds, referred to as upper earth ponds. These earth-ponds are not very common in Thuy Dien village; a few households got these ponds from buying or exchanging with aquaculturists in neighboring villages. |
| 2. Lower earth pond | Lower earth ponds were lagoon fishing grounds, which had been enclosed for aquaculture with a dike system. Dikes have been set up to separate the ponds from water flowing into the lagoon. Only wealthy households could afford the initial investment for building dikes. Approximately 16% households in the village are engaged in lower earth-pond aquaculture. |
| 3. Fish corral | Fish corrals are the most common and most important fixed fishing gear in Tam Giang Lagoon, particularly in the Sam Chuon area. It has a V-shape, made from bamboo and fishing net. There could be a number of traps within a fish corral. |
| 4. Net-enclosure | Since the 1990s, owners of fish corrals used bamboo and nets to enclose some parts of their corrals for aquaculture, called net-enclosures, a combination of aquaculture and capture fishing. Inside the net-enclosures, a number of fixed gear (mostly fish corrals) are set up, and a plot is surrounded with double net layers for aquaculture (Brzeski and Newkirk 2000; Mien 2006). |
| 5. Secondary waterway | To increase the water flowing into the Sam Chuon area, secondary waterways have been opened through participatory planning events held in late 2005 with the support of the International Development Research Centre of Canada. In the pilot project, net-enclosure owners contributed a 1.5 m width area along their fishing ground to set up these secondary waterways. |
| 6. Primary waterway | Primary waterways were traditionally used as navigation lanes for transportation, not for fishing. Currently, primary waterways are free for all local fishers with fishing gear (e.g. gillnet). |
| 7. Open water area | Open lagoon water areas are far from the edge of the lagoon and from settled villages, except the open water areas in Phu An Commune. Only mobile fishing gear is allowed in the open water areas. |
Table 3
Type of lagoon use associated with individual rights by periods.
| a) Prior to 1975 | ||||
| Lagoon use | Withdrawal | Management | Exclusion | Alienation |
| Fish corrals and other fixed gear | • | • | • | De facto |
| Navigation lanes | – | – | – | – |
| Open water areas | De facto | – | – | – |
| b) 1975–1986 | ||||
| Lagoon use | Withdrawal | Management | Exclusion | Alienation |
| Fish corrals and other fixed gear | • | De facto | – | – |
| Navigation lanes | – | – | – | – |
| Open water areas | De facto | – | – | – |
| c) Post-1986 | ||||
| Lagoon use | Withdrawal | Management | Exclusion | Alienation |
| Upper earth ponds with land title | • | • | • | • |
| Upper earth ponds w/ district permit | • | De facto | De facto | De facto |
| Lower earth ponds with land title | • | • | • | • |
| Lower earth ponds with permit | • | De facto | De facto | De facto |
| Registered fish corrals | • | De facto | De facto | De facto |
| Unregistered fish corrals | De facto | De facto | De facto | De facto |
| Net-enclosures with permit | • | De facto | De facto | De facto |
| Net-enclosures without permit | De facto | De facto | De facto | De facto |
| Secondary waterways | De facto | – | – | – |
| Primary waterways | De facto | – | – | – |
| Open water areas | De facto | – | – | – |
Notes: Classification of rights according to Schlager and Ostrom (1992). The symbol (•) refers to de jure rights of individual lagoon users with permit from government. De facto rights are rights that are exercised by individual users and recognized by other resource users.
Table 4
Diversity of property rights regimes.
| Property-rights regimes | Subtractability (management rights) | Excludability (exclusion rights) | Examples in Sam Chuon area |
| Private property | De jure individual rights | De jure individual rights | Earth ponds with land title Fish corrals (prior to 1975) |
| De facto individual rights | De facto individual rights | Earth ponds with permits Net-enclosures Fish corrals (post-1986) | |
| Government property | Government authority | Government authority | Navigation lanes (1975–1986) Open water areas (post-1975) |
| Common property | Village authority | Village authority | Navigation lanes (prior to 1975) Open water areas (prior to 1975) |
| Net-enclosure group | Net-enclosure group | Secondary waterways | |
| Combination of property-right regimes | Government and Local Fisheries’ Association | Local Fisheries’ Association | Open water areas (nursery area for fingerlings in Phu An) Primary waterways |
| De facto individual rights | Government (production co-operatives) | Fish corrals (1975–1986) |