Climate-Smart Agriculture Practices Adoption among Smallholder Coffee Farmers: Insights from Agricultural Cooperatives in Southern Highlands, Tanzania

Kiwelu, Leonard K.; Njau, Luka S.

doi:10.17306/j.jard.2025.4.00031r1

Figures & Tables

Socio-economic characteristics of respondents in the study areas

Variables	Adopters (N = 386)		Non-adopters (N = 235)		All (N= 621)

	frequency	%	frequency	%	t	P > t
Age group
18–35 years	65	10.50	22	3.50	0.7684	0.2213
36–45 years	91	14.70	74	11.90
46–60 years	160	25.80	99	15.90
>60 years	70	11.30	40	6.40
Sex
Male	303	48.80	198	31.90	1.7641	0.078
Female	83	13.40	37	6.00
Marital status
Married	378	60.90	227	36.60	1.8980	0.0291
Single	6	1.00	0	0.00
Divorced	2	0.30	8	1.30
Level of education (years)
Not attended school	9	1.40	4	0.60	2.0025	0.023
Primary	349	56.20	207	33.30
Secondary	26	4.20	18	2.90
College	2	0.30	4	0.60
Adult education	0	0.00	2	0.30
House hold size
1–2 person	19	3.10	6	1.00	1.1821	0.1188
3–4 person	106	17.10	56	9.00
5–6 person	138	22.20	98	15.80
Above 6 persons	123	19.80	75	12.10
Visits by extension officers
Once	378	60.9	218	35.1	2.5702	0.0052
Twice	2	0.3	17	2.7
More than twice	6	1.0	0	0.0
Members of agricultural cooperatives
No	25	4.0	165	26.6	22.504	0.000
Yes	361	58.1	70	11.3
Training on CSA practices
No	42.00	6.8	110.00	17.7	11.029	0.000
Yes	344.00	55.4	125.00	20
Other sources of household income
No	14.00	2	6.00	1	1.6718	0.0475
Yes	372.00	60	229.00	37

Coefficient estimates of the multivariate probit model for the adoption of specific CSA practices

Variables	Access		Manure		Weeding		Pruning		IPM		ISFM		Mulch		Agro		Rainw		Farming

	coef.	std. err.	coef.	std. err.	coef.	std. err.	coef.	std. err.	coef.	std. err.	coef.	std. err.	coef.	std. err.	coef.	std. err.	coef.	std. err.	coef.	std. err.
Age	0.222^***	0.071	−0.106	0.065	0.015	0.054	0.039	0.047	−0.048	0.034	−0.140^***	0.044	0.075	0.066	0.142^**	0.050	−0.014	0.068	−0.331^***	0.049
Sex	−0.085	0.047	−0.153^*	0.043	0.027	0.036	−0.031	0.031	−0.012	0.023	0.014	0.029	−0.110^*	0.043	0.043	0.033	0.177^***	0.045	0.035	0.032
Marital status	−0.033	0.067	0.003	0.062	0.113^*	0.051	−0.048	0.044	−0.212^***	0.033	−0.128^**	0.042	−0.082	0.062	0.022	0.047	−0.203^**	0.064	−0.013	0.046
Level of education	0.279^**	0.116^**	−0.259^*	0.107^*	0.140	0.089	−0.130	0.076	0.062	0.056	−0.110	0.072	0.024	0.108	−0.092	0.082	0.067	0.112	−0.167^*	0.080
Household size	−0.138^***	0.050	−0.001	0.046	0.082^*	0.039	−0.011	0.033	−0.048^*	0.025	−0.020	0.031	−0.117^**	0.047	−0.058	0.035	−0.046	0.049	0.143^***	0.035
Visit of extension officers	−0.076	0.053	0.098^*	0.049	0.114^**	0.040	0.180^***	0.035	0.027	0.026	0.055	0.033	−0.068	0.049	0.161^***	0.037	0.023	0.051	0.256^***	0.036
Land size under coffee	0.008	0.033	−0.139^***	0.030	−0.499^***	0.025	−0.317^***	0.022	−0.174^***	0.016	−0.273	0.020	0.368	0.030	−0.393	0.023	−0.020	0.031	0.247	0.022
Coffee yield	0.224^***	0.040	0.099^***	0.037	0.485^***	0.030	0.355^***	0.026	0.225^***	0.019	0.307^***	0.025	−0.396^***	0.037	0.405^***	0.028	0.002	0.038	−0.197^***	0.027
Household income	0.177^***	0.046	0.027	0.042	0.128^***	0.035	0.227^***	0.030	−0.045^**	0.022	0.082^***	0.029	−0.035	0.043	0.272^***	0.032	−0.151^***	0.044	−0.002	0.032
Membership of agric. cooperative	0.024	0.059	0.071	0.055	−0.021	0.046	0.041	0.039	0.127^***	0.029	0.087^**	0.037	0.017	0.055	−0.030	0.042	0.046	0.057	−0.043	0.041
_cons	−2.251	0.464	0.961	0.428	−3.560	0.356	−1.872	0.307	−0.315	0.226	−0.494	0.289	3.387	0.433	−2.763	0.327	0.849	0.448	3.199	0.320

Type of CSA practices adopted by smallholder farmers

CSA practices descriptions	Rate of adoption in percentage (%)

	adopters	non-adopters
Coffee varieties	49.9	50.1
Integrated pest management (IPM)	91.3	8.7
Integrated soil fertility management (ISFM)	83.1	16.9
Agroforestry	63.9	36.1
Soil and water conservation (S&WC)	61.8	38.2
Crop diversification	72.5	27.5
Average	70.42	29.58

Variables estimated in the Multivariate Regression Model

Equation	Obs	Parms	RMSE	R-sq	F
Coffee varieties	606	12	0.327	0.581	74.994
Integrated pest management (IPM)	606	12	0.208	0.476	49.021
Integrated soil fertility management (ISFM)	606	12	0.265	0.520	58.441
Agroforestry	606	12	0.398	0.337	27.452
Soil and water conservation	606	12	0.301	0.616	86.450
Crop diversification	606	12	0.282	0.613	85.631

Climate-Smart Agriculture Practices Adoption among Smallholder Coffee Farmers: Insights from Agricultural Cooperatives in Southern Highlands, Tanzania

Figures & Tables

Socio-economic characteristics of respondents in the study areas

Coefficient estimates of the multivariate probit model for the adoption of specific CSA practices

Type of CSA practices adopted by smallholder farmers

Variables estimated in the Multivariate Regression Model

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