Climate-Smart Agriculture Practices Adoption among Smallholder Coffee Farmers: Insights from Agricultural Cooperatives in Southern Highlands, Tanzania

Variables	Adopters (N = 386)		Non-adopters (N = 235)		All (N= 621)
Variables	frequency	%	frequency	%	t	P > t
Age group
18–35 years	65	10.50	22	3.50	0.7684	0.2213
36–45 years	91	14.70	74	11.90
46–60 years	160	25.80	99	15.90
>60 years	70	11.30	40	6.40
Sex
Male	303	48.80	198	31.90	1.7641	0.078
Female	83	13.40	37	6.00
Marital status
Married	378	60.90	227	36.60	1.8980	0.0291
Single	6	1.00	0	0.00
Divorced	2	0.30	8	1.30
Level of education (years)
Not attended school	9	1.40	4	0.60	2.0025	0.023
Primary	349	56.20	207	33.30
Secondary	26	4.20	18	2.90
College	2	0.30	4	0.60
Adult education	0	0.00	2	0.30
House hold size
1–2 person	19	3.10	6	1.00	1.1821	0.1188
3–4 person	106	17.10	56	9.00
5–6 person	138	22.20	98	15.80
Above 6 persons	123	19.80	75	12.10
Visits by extension officers
Once	378	60.9	218	35.1	2.5702	0.0052
Twice	2	0.3	17	2.7
More than twice	6	1.0	0	0.0
Members of agricultural cooperatives
No	25	4.0	165	26.6	22.504	0.000
Yes	361	58.1	70	11.3
Training on CSA practices
No	42.00	6.8	110.00	17.7	11.029	0.000
Yes	344.00	55.4	125.00	20
Other sources of household income
No	14.00	2	6.00	1	1.6718	0.0475
Yes	372.00	60	229.00	37

[i] Source: own elaboration.

Table 2.

Type of CSA practices adopted by smallholder farmers

CSA practices descriptions	Rate of adoption in percentage (%)
CSA practices descriptions	adopters	non-adopters
Coffee varieties	49.9	50.1
Integrated pest management (IPM)	91.3	8.7
Integrated soil fertility management (ISFM)	83.1	16.9
Agroforestry	63.9	36.1
Soil and water conservation (S&WC)	61.8	38.2
Crop diversification	72.5	27.5
Average	70.42	29.58

[i] Source: own elaboration.

Table 3.

Variables estimated in the Multivariate Regression Model

Equation	Obs	Parms	RMSE	R-sq	F
Coffee varieties	606	12	0.327	0.581	74.994
Integrated pest management (IPM)	606	12	0.208	0.476	49.021
Integrated soil fertility management (ISFM)	606	12	0.265	0.520	58.441
Agroforestry	606	12	0.398	0.337	27.452
Soil and water conservation	606	12	0.301	0.616	86.450
Crop diversification	606	12	0.282	0.613	85.631

[i] Source: own elaboration.

Table 4.

Coefficient estimates of the multivariate probit model for the adoption of specific CSA practices

Variables	Access		Manure		Weeding		Pruning		IPM		ISFM		Mulch		Agro		Rainw		Farming
Variables	coef.	std. err.	coef.	std. err.	coef.	std. err.	coef.	std. err.	coef.	std. err.	coef.	std. err.	coef.	std. err.	coef.	std. err.	coef.	std. err.	coef.	std. err.
Age	0.222^***	0.071	−0.106	0.065	0.015	0.054	0.039	0.047	−0.048	0.034	−0.140^***	0.044	0.075	0.066	0.142^**	0.050	−0.014	0.068	−0.331^***	0.049
Sex	−0.085	0.047	−0.153^*	0.043	0.027	0.036	−0.031	0.031	−0.012	0.023	0.014	0.029	−0.110^*	0.043	0.043	0.033	0.177^***	0.045	0.035	0.032
Marital status	−0.033	0.067	0.003	0.062	0.113^*	0.051	−0.048	0.044	−0.212^***	0.033	−0.128^**	0.042	−0.082	0.062	0.022	0.047	−0.203^**	0.064	−0.013	0.046
Level of education	0.279^**	0.116^**	−0.259^*	0.107^*	0.140	0.089	−0.130	0.076	0.062	0.056	−0.110	0.072	0.024	0.108	−0.092	0.082	0.067	0.112	−0.167^*	0.080
Household size	−0.138^***	0.050	−0.001	0.046	0.082^*	0.039	−0.011	0.033	−0.048^*	0.025	−0.020	0.031	−0.117^**	0.047	−0.058	0.035	−0.046	0.049	0.143^***	0.035
Visit of extension officers	−0.076	0.053	0.098^*	0.049	0.114^**	0.040	0.180^***	0.035	0.027	0.026	0.055	0.033	−0.068	0.049	0.161^***	0.037	0.023	0.051	0.256^***	0.036
Land size under coffee	0.008	0.033	−0.139^***	0.030	−0.499^***	0.025	−0.317^***	0.022	−0.174^***	0.016	−0.273	0.020	0.368	0.030	−0.393	0.023	−0.020	0.031	0.247	0.022
Coffee yield	0.224^***	0.040	0.099^***	0.037	0.485^***	0.030	0.355^***	0.026	0.225^***	0.019	0.307^***	0.025	−0.396^***	0.037	0.405^***	0.028	0.002	0.038	−0.197^***	0.027
Household income	0.177^***	0.046	0.027	0.042	0.128^***	0.035	0.227^***	0.030	−0.045^**	0.022	0.082^***	0.029	−0.035	0.043	0.272^***	0.032	−0.151^***	0.044	−0.002	0.032
Membership of agric. cooperative	0.024	0.059	0.071	0.055	−0.021	0.046	0.041	0.039	0.127^***	0.029	0.087^**	0.037	0.017	0.055	−0.030	0.042	0.046	0.057	−0.043	0.041
_cons	−2.251	0.464	0.961	0.428	−3.560	0.356	−1.872	0.307	−0.315	0.226	−0.494	0.289	3.387	0.433	−2.763	0.327	0.849	0.448	3.199	0.320

Coefficient in parentheses

*** p < 0.01,

** p < 0.05,

* p < 0.1 represent level of significance respectively.

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Articles in this issue

DOI: https://doi.org/10.17306/j.jard.2025.4.00031r1 | Journal eISSN: 1899-5772 | Journal ISSN: 1899-5241

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Language: English

Page range: 427 - 439

Accepted on: Nov 22, 2025

Published on: Dec 30, 2025

Published by: Poznań University of Life Science

In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services

Publication frequency: 4 issues per year

Keywords:

practices,

climate-smart agriculture,

smallholder coffee farmers,

adoption,

climate change

Related subjects:

Business and economics,

Political economics,

Political economics, other,

Business management,

Business management, other,

Life sciences,

Life sciences, other,

Social sciences,

Political science,

Political science, other

© 2025 Leonard K. Kiwelu, Luka S. Njau, published by Poznań University of Life Science
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.

Volume 78 (2025): Issue 4 (December 2025)