Table 1
Sample Characteristics.
| T1 | T2 | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| (N = 3232) | (N = 1878) | ||
| Gender | |||
| Male | 1292 (40.0%) | 781 (41.6%) | |
| Female | 1875 (58.0%) | 1085 (57.8%) | |
| No information | 65 (2.0%) | 12 (0.6%) | |
| Age | |||
| Mean | 37.54 | 37.77 | |
| Standard Deviation | 12.97 | 13.19 | |
| Minimum–Maximum | 18–67 | 20–66 | |
| Highest obtained degree in education | |||
| Higher education | 2077 (64.3%) | 1210 (64.6%) | |
| Secondary education | 1032 (31.9%) | 622 (33.1%) | |
| Primary education | 49 (1.5%) | 30 (1.6%) | |
| No information | 74 (2.3%) | 16 (0.9%) | |
| Type of contract | |||
| Permanent | 2627 (81.3%) | 1531 (81.5%) | |
| Temporary | 600 (16.3%) | 343 (18.3%) | |
| No information | 5 (0.1%) | 4 (0.2%) | |
| Working hours | |||
| Full time | 2471 (76.5%) | 1443 (76.8%) | |
| Part time | 761 (23.5%) | 435 (23.2%) | |
| No information | 0 (0.0%) | 0 (0.0%) | |
| Sector | |||
| Profit | 1024 (31.7%) | 561 (29.9%) | |
| Non-profit | 2208 (68.3%) | 1316 (70.0%) | |
| No information | 0 (0.0%) | 1 (0.1%) | |
| Occupational position | |||
| Blue-collar workers | 265 (8.2%) | 154 (8.2%) | |
| White-collar workers | 2076 (64.2%) | 1184 (63.0%) | |
| Management | 100 (3.1%) | 49 (2.6%) | |
| No information | 791 (24.5%) | 491 (26.1%) | |
| Number of employees within organization | |||
| 0–49 employees | 557 (17.9%) | 329 (17.5%) | |
| 50–249 employees | 545 (16.9%) | 286 (15.2%) | |
| 250–999 employees | 389 (12.0%) | 220 (11.7%) | |
| 1000 employees or more | 1721 (53.2%) | 1043 (55.5%) | |
| No information | 0 (0.0%) | 0 (0.0%) | |
| Years of total work experience | |||
| Mean | 14.55 | 14.68 | |
| Standard Deviation | 13.15 | 13.35 | |
| Minimum–Maximum | 0–47 | 0–46 | |
[i] Note: This table demonstrates sample characteristics of the samples described in step 2 (questionnaire administration) and step 6 (retesting the structure and assessing the instrument over time).
Table 2
Results Exploratory Factor Analysis.
| Item code | Item | F1 | F2 | F3 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Q7 | Observed how others managed things. | 0.86 | 0.06 | 0.03 |
| Q10 | Asked the opinion of others on what I did. | 0.80 | 0.09 | 0.03 |
| Q11 | Talked about work experiences with others. | 0.79 | 0.01 | 0.01 |
| Q6 | Thought about how I handled things. | 0.71 | –0.09 | –0.04 |
| Q12 | Thought about how I would handle things on beforehand. | 0.70 | –0.07 | –0.04 |
| Q3 | Asked others for information. | 0.62 | –0.17 | 0.08 |
| Q14 | Read magazines, websites, books, etc. | –0.06 | –0.97 | –0.04 |
| Q15 | Watched visual material (documentary films, instruction videos, etc.). | 0.00 | –0.70 | 0.09 |
| Q1 | Searched for information (websites, magazines, videos, books, etc.). | 0.14 | –0.63 | 0.01 |
| Q8 | Took part in a workshop. | –0.10 | –0.02 | 0.81 |
| Q4 | Took part in a seminar/conference. | 0.04 | –0.03 | 0.74 |
| Q9 | Attended a presentation. | 0.06 | –0.05 | 0.69 |
| Q5 | Attended a training/(additional) course. | 0.03 | 0.05 | 0.62 |
[i] Note: The second construct correlated negatively with the first and third construct. These negative loadings are due to the choice for oblique rotation and have no further implications (e.g., Bandalos, 2018).
Table 3
Confirmatory Factor Analysis.
| Item | Regression weight | Standard error | Standardized regression weight | Critical ratioa |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Informal learning activities using personal sources | ||||
| Q7 | 1.00 | b | 0.82 | b |
| Q10 | 0.93 | 0.03 | 0.76 | 32.95 |
| Q11 | 0.95 | 0.03 | 0.79 | 34.88 |
| Q6 | 0.96 | 0.03 | 0.75 | 32.48 |
| Q12 | 0.91 | 0.03 | 0.70 | 29.89 |
| Q3 | 0.86 | 0.03 | 0.71 | 30.19 |
| Informal learning activities using environmental sources | ||||
| Q14 | 1.00 | b | 0.87 | b |
| Q15 | 0.85 | 0.03 | 0.79 | 32.58 |
| Q1 | 0.78 | 0.03 | 0.71 | 29.17 |
| Formal learning activities | ||||
| Q8 | 1.00 | b | 0.81 | b |
| Q4 | 1.01 | 0.03 | 0.77 | 30.81 |
| Q9 | 1.04 | 0.03 | 0.77 | 30.93 |
| Q5 | 0.89 | 0.04 | 0.65 | 25.45 |
[i] Note: Estimation method: maximum likelihood.
a All critical ratios: p < 0.001.
b Value fixed at 1.00 for model identification purpose, hence no standard error was computed.
Table 4
Measurement Invariance across Groups.
| Groups | Model | χ2 (df) | CFI | RMSEA | BIC | Model comparison | Δχ2 (Δdf) | p | ΔCFI |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Educational background | Model 1 (configural invariance) | 791.10 (186) | 0.936 | 0.079 | 65255 | ||||
| Model 2 (equal loadings) | 860.97 (206) | 0.931 | 0.078 | 65178 | Model 1 vs. Model 2 (metric invariance) | 69.86 (20) | <0.001 | 0.005 | |
| Model 3 (+equal intercepts) | 936.16 (226) | 0.925 | 0.077 | 65106 | Model 2 vs. Model 3 (scalar invariance) | 75.20 (20) | <0.001 | 0.006 | |
| Sector | Model 1 (configural invariance) | 766.52 (124) | 0.938 | 0.080 | 67141 | ||||
| Model 2 (equal loadings) | 783.00 (134) | 0.938 | 0.077 | 67084 | Model 1 vs. Model 2 (metric invariance) | 16.49 (10) | 0.09 | 0.001 | |
| Model 3 (+equal intercepts) | 860.32 (144) | 0.931 | 0.078 | 67087 | Model 2 vs. Model 3 (scalar invariance) | 77.32 (10) | <0.001 | 0.006 |
Table 5
Correlation Coefficient Estimates for Relationships between Demographic Variables and Work-Related Learning (T1–T2).
| M | SD | Square Root AVE | 17. | 18. | 19. | 20. | 21. | 22. | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1. Female | 0.59 | 0.49 | – | 0.14*** | –0.04* | 0.01 | 0.18*** | –0.06* | –0.00 |
| 2. Age | 37.54 | 12.97 | – | –0.42*** | –0.14*** | –0.15*** | –0.44*** | –0.15*** | –0.13*** |
| 3. Higher education | 0.66 | 0.47 | – | 0.36*** | 0.25*** | 0.20*** | 0.36*** | 0.24*** | 0.18*** |
| 4. Secondary education | 0.33 | 0.47 | – | –0.34*** | –0.23*** | –0.18*** | –0.34*** | –0.22*** | –0.15*** |
| 5. Primary education | 0.02 | 0.12 | – | –0.08*** | –0.08*** | –0.09*** | –0.09*** | –0.10*** | –0.03 |
| 6. Permanent contract | 0.81 | 0.39 | – | –0.27*** | –0.15*** | –0.02 | –0.29*** | –0.13*** | 0.01 |
| 7. Full time employment | 0.76 | 0.42 | – | 0.12*** | 0.12*** | 0.13*** | 0.10*** | 0.15*** | 0.14*** |
| 8. Profit sector | 0.32 | 0.47 | – | –0.01 | –0.08*** | –0.07*** | –0.04 | –0.04 | –0.05* |
| 9. Blue-collar workers | 0.11 | 0.31 | – | –0.19*** | –0.22*** | –0.18*** | –0.19*** | –0.18*** | –0.17*** |
| 10. White-collar worker | 0.83 | 0.37 | – | 0.11*** | 0.12*** | 0.08*** | 0.12*** | 0.10*** | 0.10*** |
| 11. Management | 0.04 | 0.20 | – | 0.09*** | 0.13*** | 0.14*** | 0.08*** | 0.11*** | 0.12*** |
| 12. Size: 0–49 employees | 0.26 | 0.44 | – | 0.06** | 0.04 | –0.09*** | 0.11*** | 0.09** | –0.06 |
| 13. Size: 50–249 employees | 0.25 | 0.43 | – | –0.02 | –0.00 | –0.02 | –0.02 | –0.05 | –0.00 |
| 14. Size: 250–999 employees | 0.18 | 0.38 | – | –0.03 | –0.03 | –0.01 | –0.07* | –0.08** | –0.02 |
| 15. Size: 1000 employees or more | 0.32 | 0.46 | – | –0.01 | –0.02 | 0.11*** | –0.03 | 0.02 | 0.08** |
| 16. Work experience | 14.55 | 13.15 | – | –0.44*** | –0.17*** | –0.16*** | –0.45*** | –0.17*** | –0.14*** |
| 17. Informal learning personal sources – T1 | 4.14 | 1.31 | 0.75 | – | 0.48*** | 0.38*** | 0.72*** | 0.36*** | 0.25*** |
| 18. Informal learning environmental sources – T1 | 3.64 | 1.54 | 0.79 | – | 0.41*** | 0.38*** | 0.60*** | 0.29*** | |
| 19. Formal learning – T1 | 2.23 | 0.94 | 0.75 | – | 0.25*** | 0.31*** | 0.56*** | ||
| 20. Informal learning personal sources – T2 | 4.19 | 1.26 | 0.75 | – | 0.47*** | 0.34*** | |||
| 21. Informal learning environmental sources – T2 | 3.69 | 1.49 | 0.78 | – | 0.38*** | ||||
| 22. Formal learning – T2 | 2.24 | 0.88 | 0.74 | – |
[i] Note: * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001; AVE = Average Variance Extracted.
Table 6
Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Second Measurement Moment.
| Item | Regression weight | Standard error | Standardized regression weight | Critical ratioa |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Informal learning activities using personal sources | ||||
| Q7 | 1.00 | b | 0.82 | b |
| Q10 | 0.92 | 0.03 | 0.76 | 35.85 |
| Q11 | 0.95 | 0.03 | 0.79 | 37.80 |
| Q6 | 0.96 | 0.03 | 0.75 | 35.33 |
| Q12 | 0.88 | 0.03 | 0.70 | 32.29 |
| Q3 | 0.84 | 0.03 | 0.69 | 31.91 |
| Informal learning activities using environmental sources | ||||
| Q14 | 1.00 | b | 0.86 | b |
| Q15 | 0.81 | 0.03 | 0.77 | 31.97 |
| Q1 | 0.78 | 0.03 | 0.69 | 29.27 |
| Formal learning activities | ||||
| Q8 | 1.00 | b | 0.79 | b |
| Q4 | 1.00 | 0.03 | 0.74 | 30.27 |
| Q9 | 1.12 | 0.04 | 0.78 | 31.65 |
| Q5 | 0.91 | 0.04 | 0.64 | 26.38 |
[i] Note: Estimation method: maximum likelihood.
a All critical ratios: p < 0.001.
b Value fixed at 1.00 for model identification purpose, hence no standard error was computed.
Table 7
Longitudinal Measurement Invariance.
| Scale | Model | χ2 (df) | CFI | RMSEA | BIC | Model comparison | Δχ2 (Δdf) | p | ΔCFI |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Informal learning activities using personal sources | Model 1 | 558.53 (47) | 0.963 | 0.076 | 72076.24 | ||||
| Model 2 (equal loadings) | 559.92 (52) | 0.963 | 0.072 | 72039.95 | Model 1 vs. Model 2 | 1.39 (5) | 0.93 | 0.000 | |
| Model 3 (+equal intercepts) | 575.22 (57) | 0.963 | 0.070 | 72017.55 | Model 2 vs. Model 3 | 15.30 (5) | 0.009 | 0.000 | |
| Informal learning activities using environmental sources | Model 1 | 22.77 (5) | 0.997 | 0.044 | 39552.72 | ||||
| Model 2 (equal loadings) | 23.18 (7) | 0.997 | 0.035 | 39538.05 | Model 1 vs. Model 2 | 0.41 (2) | 0.81 | 0.000 | |
| Model 3 (+equal intercepts) | 29.53 (9) | 0.996 | 0.035 | 39529.32 | Model 2 vs. Model 3 | 6.35 (2) | 0.04 | 0.001 | |
| Formal learning activities | Model 1 | 207.99 (15) | 0.970 | 0.083 | 39930.47 | ||||
| Model 2 (equal loadings) | 209.79 (18) | 0.970 | 0.075 | 39909.66 | Model 1 vs. Model 2 | 1.80 | 0.61 | 0.000 | |
| Model 3 (+equal intercepts) | 211.33 (21) | 0.971 | 0.069 | 39761.22 | Model 2 vs. Model 3 | 1.54 | 0.67 | –0.001 |
| Item in Instrument | Reference(s) | Exemplary original item | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Q1 | Searched for information (websites, magazines, videos, books, etc.). | Berg and Chyung 2008 Lohman 2006 Noe et al. (2013) | Search the web (including intranet). |
| Q2 | Tried something new (technique, method, behaviour, etc.). | Berg and Chyung 2008 Lohman 2006 Kwakman 2003 Noe et al. (2013) | Experimenting with new ways of performing my work. |
| Q3 | Asked others for information. | Berg and Chyung (2008) | Ask questions in professional listservs. |
| Q4 | Took part in a seminar/conference. | Blau et al. 2008 Lauber et al. (2010) | Attending conferences and symposia. |
| Q5 | Attended a training/(additional) course. | Berg and Chyung 2008 Blau et al. 2008 Lauber et al. (2010) | Attend a training program. |
| Q6 | Thought about how I handled things. | Berg and Chyung 2008 Kwakman 2003 Lohman 2006 Noe et al. (2013) | Reflect on your actions. |
| Q7 | Observed how others managed things. | Berg and Chyung 2008 Kwakman 2003 Lohman (2006) | Observe others. |
| Q8 | Took part in a workshop. | Blau et al. (2008) | Workshops (e.g., customer service, laboratory testing). |
| Q9 | Attended a presentation. | New item | |
| Q10 | Asked the opinion of others on what I did. | Kwakman (2003) | Ask pupils’ feedback. |
| Q11 | Talked about work experiences with others. | Berg and Chyung 2008 Kwakman 2003 Lauber et al. 2010 Lohman 2006 Noe et al. (2013) | Talk with other people at work face to face. |
| Q12 | Thought about how I would handle things on beforehand. | New item | |
| Q13 | Took an e-learning course (online training). | New item | |
| Q14 | Read magazines, websites, books, etc. | Berg and Chyung 2008 Kwakman 2003 Lauber et al. 2010 Lohman 2006 Noe et al. (2013) | Reading professional magazines or vendor publications. |
| Q15 | Watched visual material (documentary films, instruction videos, etc.). | New item | |
[i] Note: The items were measured on a 7-point Likert scale, ranging from: 1 ‘Never’, 2 ‘Rarely – Once or twice in the previous six months’, 3 ‘Occasionally – Monthly’, 4 ‘Often – A few times each month’, 5 ‘Very often – Weekly’, 6 ‘Very often – A few times each week’, to 7 ‘On a daily basis’.