Figure 1
Proposed Conceptual Model and Hypotheses.
Figure 2
The nesting of participants (N = 1,597) in leader-follower groups in the eight organizations.
Table 1
Variable means, standard deviations, and correlations among leaders (n = 240) and followers (n = 1,357).
| M | SD | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Follower variables | |||||||||||||||||
| 1. Gender | 1.7 | .56 | .03 | .02 | .00 | –.09 | –.01 | .03 | .04 | .02 | –.65 | .50 | |||||
| 2. Age (in years) | 46.4 | 84.6 | .36 | .06 | –.00 | .01 | –.01 | –.01 | –.01 | –.04 | –.07 | .61 | |||||
| 3. Relationship duration (in years) | 1.8 | .78 | –.19 | .01 | .02 | –.10 | –.08 | .01 | –.05 | .04 | –.04 | .06 | |||||
| 4.Managerial role (yes = 1, no = 2) | 1.22 | .36 | –.27 | –.03 | .32 | .02 | . 15 | .02 | .01 | –.05 | .05 | .06 | |||||
| 5. Authentic Leadership | 5.33 | 1.22 | .02 | –.28 | –.25 | .09 | .22 | –.21 | .23 | –.20 | .01 | –.10 | –.03 | .14 | –.01 | –.13 | |
| 6. Job Involvement | 3.84 | .95 | –.13 | –.48 | –02 | .13 | .56 | –.21 | .43 | –.20 | .03 | –.05 | –.00 | –.01 | –.07 | –.13 | |
| 7. Turnover intentions | 2.56 | 1.47 | –.04 | –.03 | –.01 | .16 | –.44 | –.43 | –.30 | .43 | –.05 | .01 | .07 | –.04 | .003 | .25 | |
| 8. Work Engagement | 5.57 | 1.04 | .05 | –.41 | –.10 | .16 | .61 | .92 | –.54 | –.41 | .05 | –.08 | –.07 | .06 | –.13 | –.35 | |
| 9. Burnout | 2.33 | 0.84 | .09 | –06 | –.06 | .08 | –.46 | –.55 | .94 | –.64 | –.01 | .04 | .07 | –.14 | .08 | –.21 | |
| Leader variables | |||||||||||||||||
| 10. Gender | 1.48 | .50 | .13 | ||||||||||||||
| 11. Age (in years) | 45.9 | 8.9 | –.16 | .57 | |||||||||||||
| 12. Leading Experience (in years) | 12.0 | 8.6 | .10 | –.05 | –.11 | ||||||||||||
| 13. Authentic Leadership | 5.4 | .77 | .15 | .32 | –.23 | –.19 | |||||||||||
| 14. Industrial Services | –.46 | .01 | –.04 | –.20 | |||||||||||||
| 15. Technology | .38 | .22 | 0.2 | 0.10 |
[i] Note. For followers, the within-level correlations are above the diagonal, and the between-level correlations are below it. Correlation coefficients in bold font are significant at the p < .001 level, and coefficients in italics at the p < .01 level. Gender: 1 = female, 2 = male. Customer-oriented business is the reference for industrial services and technology.
Table 2
Multilevel estimates of leader and follower ratings of authentic leadership and the moderating effect of relationship duration.
| PREDICTOR VARIABLES | FOLLOWER-RATED AUTHENTIC LEADERSHIP | |
|---|---|---|
| ESTIMATE (β) | S.E. | |
| Within-level (level 1) | ||
| Relationship duration | –0.11* | 0.05 |
| Between-level (level 2) | ||
| Leader self-rated authentic leadership | 0.09 | 0.09 |
| Relationship duration | –0.09 | 0.12 |
| Leader self-rated AL × Relationship Duration | 0.02 | 0.09 |
| Leader age | –0.05 | 0.13 |
| Industrial services | –0.19* | 0.09 |
| Technology | –0.20* | 0.10 |
[i] Note. Significant estimates in bold font: *p < .05; **p <.01; ***p < .001. Customer-oriented business is the reference category. The controlled variables have been selected based on significant correlations: see Table 1.
Figure 3a
Multilevel estimates of leader–follower perceptual variation in authentic leadership: follower perceptions predicted by leaders’ self-ratings, with leader–follower relationship duration as a moderator. Significant estimates: *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.
Table 3
Multilevel modeling: authentic leadership and follower outcomes and the moderating effect of leader-follower relationship duration.
| PREDICTOR VARIABLES | FOLLOWER OUTCOMES | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| JOB INVOLVEMENT | TURNOVER INTENTIONS | WORK ENGAGEMENT | BURNOUT | |||||
| ESTIMATE | S.E. | ESTIMATE | S.E. | ESTIMATE | S.E. | ESTIMATE | S.E. | |
| Within-level (level 1) | ||||||||
| Follower-rated Authentic Leadership | 0.25*** | 0.05 | –0.25*** | 0.04 | 0.27*** | 0.05 | –0.19*** | 0.05 |
| Relationship duration | –0.09* | 0.05 | 0.04 | 0.05 | –0.06 | 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.05 |
| Follower-rated AL × Relationship duration | –0.03 | 0.03 | 0.00 | 0.03 | 0.03 | 0.04 | 0.03 | 0.04 |
| Follower managerial role (1 = no, 2 = yes) | 0.07** | 0.02 | ||||||
| Follower age | –0.22*** | 0.04 | ||||||
| Between-level (Level 2) | ||||||||
| Follower-rated Authentic Leadership | 0.09 | 0.19 | 0.01 | 0.17 | 0.10 | 0.17 | –0.29* | 0.13 |
| Relationship duration | 0.47* | 0.20 | –0.39 | 0.25 | 0.19 | 0.25 | –0.14 | 0.16 |
| Follower-rated AL × Relationship duration | 0.26 | 0.14 | –0.20 | 0.15 | 0.23 | 0.13 | 0.02 | 0.11 |
| Follower managerial role (1 = no, 2 = yes) | 0.21 | 0.16 | ||||||
| Follower age | –0.91* | 0.40 | ||||||
| Leader age | –0.10 | 0.16 | ||||||
| Industrial services | –0.30 | 0.18 | 0.30 | 0.20 | –0.40* | 0.16 | 0.16 | 0.12 |
| Technology | –0.58*** | 0.17 | 0.96* | 0.38 | –0.55*** | 0.14 | 0.22 | 0.13 |
[i] Note. Significant estimates are in bold font. *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001. Customer-oriented business is the reference.
Figure 3b
Multilevel estimates for follower-reported outcomes predicted by follower-perceived authentic leadership, with leader–follower relationship duration as a moderator. Significant estimates: *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.
Figure 4
A summary of study findings in relation to hypotheses.