The difference in clinical knowledge between staff employed at faith-based and public facilities in Malawi

Clinical Case	Correct diagnosis required	Correct treatment required
Child
Malaria with anaemia	Malaria OR simple malaria Anaemia	Coartem/LA: Twice daily for 3 days (total 6 doses) Iron (+/-folic acid) Paracetamol (PCM)
Diarrhoea with severe dehydration	Diarrhoea OR acute diarrhoea Dehydration OR severe dehydration	Oral rehydration solution (ORS) OR rehydration using nasogastric tube (NGT) IV fluids OR referral to another facility OR referral to another health provider Zinc
Pneumonia	Pneumonia OR acute respiratory infection	Amoxicillin (+/-dosage specified) Antipyretic (PCM +/-dosage specified)
Pregnant women
Anaemia in pregnancy (at first ANC visit during second trimester)	Pregnancy with anaemia (+/-iron deficiency anaemia)	Iron (60mg) Tetanus toxoid immunization Insecticide-treated net Malaria prophylaxis
Adult
Pulmonary tuberculosis	Tuberculosis	Rifampicin, isoniazid, pyrazinamide, and ethambutol OR Combination therapy OR 4 drugs for 2 months, then 2 drugs for 4 months OR follow up in TB clinic
Type 2 diabetes	Diabetes OR type 2 diabetes	Oral hypoglycaemic medicines OR insulin when hypoglycaemic medicines are ineffective

[i] Notes. Table based on information presented in the Malawi Harmonised Health Facility Assessment 2018/2019 Report.

Table 2

Criteria used to define correct diagnosis and management of emergency maternal and neonatal case

Clinical Case	Correct diagnosis required	Correct management required
Postpartum haemorrhage	Postpartum haemorrhage	Determine cause Stimulate uterine contractions abdominally Bimanual massage Intravenous line Intramuscular oxytocin (+/-dose) Intravenous oxytocin (+/-dose schedule) Blood transfusion Surgery: If other measures fail to stop bleeding. Subtotal or total hysterectomy Foley catheter
Neonatal asphyxia	Neonatal asphyxia	Call for help Dry baby Keep baby warm Clear airway Position neck slightly extended to keep airway clear Clear airway with aspirator/sucker Stimulate breathing – rubbing back Neutral position Start ventilation with bag and mask Give 5 good inflation breaths Check heart rate (femoral or cord or auscultate) Check breathing Continue to 30 ventilations/minute Check if chest rises during ventilation Stop every 1–2 minutes and check HR or breathing Stop ventilation if HR >100 Chest compressions Provide oxygen

[i] Notes. Table based on information presented in the Malawi Harmonised Health Facility Assessment 2018/2019 Report.

Table 3

Summary statistics for the pooled analytical sample of healthcare workers and by facility ownership

	Pooled		CHAM		Public
Variables	Percent	SD	Percent	SD	Percent	SD
Healthcare worker cadre
Medical Doctor	2	0.15	5	0.21	1	0.12
Medical Assistant	52	0.5	38	0.49	57	0.5
Clinical Officer	22	0.41	26	0.44	2	0.4
Nurse	24	0.43	31	0.46	22	0.41
Type of health facility
Hospital	36	0.48	55	0.5	29	0.45
Health Centre	56	0.5	42	0.49	62	0.49
Dispensary	4	0.2	1	0.1	5	0.22
Clinic	3	0.16	2	0.13	3	0.17
Health Post	1	0.09	0	0.06	1	0.1
Region
North	2	0.4	2	0.4	19	0.4
Central	39	0.49	4	0.49	38	0.49
South	42	0.49	41	0.49	42	0.49
Rural	75	0.43	92	0.28	69	0.46
Clinical Knowledge
Correct diagnosis of diarrhoea with severe dehydration	37	0.48	32	0.47	39	0.49
Correct diagnosis of pneumonia	92	0.28	91	0.29	92	0.27
Correct diagnosis of diabetes	87	0.33	93	0.25	85	0.36
Correct diagnosis of TB	93	0.25	93	0.26	94	0.25
Correct diagnosis of malaria with anaemia	38	0.49	34	0.47	39	0.49
Correct diagnosis of anaemia in pregnancy	63	0.48	65	0.48	62	0.49
Correct diagnosis of post-partum haemorrhage	91	0.28	92	0.27	91	0.29
Correct diagnosis of neonatal asphyxia	82	0.39	81	0.39	82	0.38
Correct treatment of diarrhoea with severe dehydration	55	0.5	52	0.5	56	0.5
Correct treatment of pneumonia	79	0.41	81	0.39	78	0.41
Correct treatment of diabetes	78	0.42	85	0.36	75	0.43
Correct treatment of TB	86	0.35	87	0.34	86	0.35
Correct treatment of malaria with anaemia	36	0.48	37	0.48	36	0.48
Correct treatment of anaemia in pregnancy	37	0.48	41	0.49	36	0.48
Correct diagnosis and treatment of diarrhoea with dehydration	25	0.44	22	0.41	27	0.44
Correct diagnosis and treatment of pneumonia	74	0.44	74	0.44	74	0.44
Correct diagnosis and treatment of diabetes	77	0.42	84	0.37	74	0.44
Correct diagnosis and treatment of TB	85	0.36	86	0.34	84	0.37
Correct diagnosis and treatment of malaria with anaemia	25	0.43	23	0.42	25	0.44
Correct diagnosis and treatment of anaemia in pregnancy	25	0.43	27	0.45	24	0.43
Observations	1051		286		765

[i] Notes. This table presents the descriptive statistics for the analytical sample of clinical staff employed at public and CHAM facilities surveyed for the Clinical Vignette module in the 2018/2019 Malawi HHFA.

Table 4

Summary statistics for the pooled analytical sample of healthcare workers and by facility ownership

	Pooled		CHAM		Public
Variables	Average	SD	Percent	SD	Percent	SD
Experience (years)	6.96	7.03	7.34	8.09	6.82	6.6
Working hours/week	58.73	36.58	55.03	34.65	60.11	37.21
Proportion of correct management of (score 0-100):
Postpartum haemorrhage	52.82	28.83	53.46	29.02	52.58	28.78
Neonatal asphyxia	54.5	31.94	56.04	31.61	53.93	32.06
Observations	1051		286		765

Table 5

Faith-based facility ownership and probability of correctly diagnosing childhood illness cases.

	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)	(8)	(9)	(10)	(11)	(12)
Variables	Correct diagnosis of diarrhoea with severe dehydration				Correct diagnosis of pneumonia				Correct diagnosis of malaria with anaemia
CHAM Facility	-0.072**	-0.084**	-0.099***	-0.081**	-0.016	-0.004	-0.016	-0.014	-0.056*	-0.049	-0.040	-0.028
CHAM Facility	(0.033)	(0.033)	(0.036)	(0.035)	(0.020)	(0.018)	(0.019)	(0.020)	(0.033)	(0.034)	(0.037)	(0.037)
Cadre: Medical assistant		-0.203*	-0.171	-0.211**		0.024	0.049	0.034		0.040	0.063	0.048
Cadre: Medical assistant		(0.105)	(0.107)	(0.099)		(0.058)	(0.068)	(0.061)		(0.102)	(0.099)	(0.093)
Cadre: Clinical officer		-0.160	-0.146	-0.185*		0.053	0.069	0.057		0.049	0.091	0.062
Cadre: Clinical officer		(0.107)	(0.107)	(0.100)		(0.057)	(0.068)	(0.061)		(0.104)	(0.100)	(0.093)
Cadre: Nurse		-0.192*	-0.169	-0.184*		-0.105*	-0.086	-0.107		-0.011	0.028	0.045
Cadre: Nurse		(0.106)	(0.108)	(0.101)		(0.062)	(0.072)	(0.067)		(0.103)	(0.100)	(0.096)
Experience (years)		0.001	0.002	0.003		-0.002*	-0.003**	-0.003**		-0.002	-0.002	-0.001
Experience (years)		(0.002)	(0.002)	(0.002)		(0.001)	(0.001)	(0.001)		(0.002)	(0.002)	(0.002)
Work hours/week		-0.000	-0.000	-0.000		-0.000	-0.000	-0.000		-0.000	-0.000	-0.000
Work hours/week		(0.000)	(0.000)	(0.000)		(0.000)	(0.000)	(0.000)		(0.000)	(0.000)	(0.000)
Facility type: Health centre			-0.035	-0.017			-0.038**	-0.048**			0.063	0.071*
Facility type: Health centre			(0.040)	(0.041)			(0.019)	(0.022)			(0.040)	(0.041)
Facility type: Dispensary			-0.071	-0.031			-0.063	-0.081			-0.116	-0.083
Facility type: Dispensary			(0.081)	(0.083)			(0.059)	(0.062)			(0.073)	(0.077)
Facility type: Clinic			-0.182**	-0.118			-0.023	-0.024			-0.206***	-0.172**
Facility type: Clinic			(0.084)	(0.092)			(0.051)	(0.052)			(0.069)	(0.076)
Facility type: Health post			-0.255*	-0.247*
Facility type: Health post			(0.137)	(0.130)
Rural area			0.006	-0.027			-0.004	0.002			-0.057	-0.054
Rural area			(0.042)	(0.044)			(0.023)	(0.026)			(0.043)	(0.044)
Zone			X				X				X	X
District				X				X
Observations	1,051	1,049	1,049	1,044	1,051	1,049	1,041	920	1,051	1,049	1,041	1,036

Notes. This table displays average marginal effects from the Probit model specified in Equation 1. Clinical vignette data of healthcare workers employed at CHAM and government facilities from the 2018/2019 Malawi HHFA is used for analysis. The omitted reference categories are Cadre: Doctor and Facility type: Hospital. Statistical level of significance is indicated as;

* p < .10,

** p < .05,

*** p < .01. Robust standard errors are shown in parentheses.

Table 6

Faith-based facility ownership and probability of healthcare workers correctly diagnosing adult illness cases.

	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)	(8)	(9)	(10)	(11)	(12)
Variables	Correct diagnosis of diabetes				Correct diagnosis of tuberculosis				Correct diagnosis of anaemia in pregnancy
CHAM Facility	0.083***	0.082***	0.069***	0.072***	-0.006	0.005	0.018	0.025	0.033	0.029	0.009	0.016
CHAM Facility	(0.020)	(0.019)	(0.022)	(0.022)	(0.017)	(0.017)	(0.016)	(0.023)	(0.033)	(0.033)	(0.037)	(0.036)
Cadre: Medical assistant		0.010	0.099	0.064		0.084	0.140*	0.110		-0.190**	-0.178**	-0.152*
Cadre: Medical assistant		(0.079)	(0.100)	(0.095)		(0.073)	(0.081)	(0.075)		(0.085)	(0.085)	(0.082)
Cadre: Clinical officer		0.116	0.165*	0.138		0.053	0.120	0.098		-0.070	-0.050	-0.035
Cadre: Nurse		(0.078)	(0.100)	(0.096)		(0.074)	(0.082)	(0.076)		(0.087)	(0.086)	(0.083)
		-0.037	0.040	0.000		0.050	0.129	0.048		-0.220**	-0.193**	-0.192**
		(0.081)	(0.101)	(0.097)		(0.073)	(0.082)	(0.080)		(0.088)	(0.087)	(0.085)
Experience (years)		-0.001	-0.000	-0.000		0.004**	0.005***	0.006***		-0.004*	-0.004**	-0.003
Experience (years)		(0.002)	(0.001)	(0.002)		(0.002)	(0.001)	(0.002)		(0.002)	(0.002)	(0.002)
Work hours/week		0.000	0.001**	0.001***		0.000*	0.000	0.001*		0.001	0.001	0.001
Work hours/week		(0.000)	(0.000)	(0.000)		(0.000)	(0.000)	(0.000)		(0.000)	(0.000)	(0.000)
Facility type: Health centre			-0.077***	-0.083***			0.041**	0.064**			-0.019	-0.004
Facility type: Health centre			(0.023)	(0.025)			(0.018)	(0.027)			(0.039)	(0.042)
Facility type: Dispensary			-0.125**	-0.159**			0.004	-0.012			-0.007	-0.022
Facility type: Dispensary			(0.061)	(0.068)			(0.045)	(0.069)			(0.080)	(0.081)
Facility type: Clinic			-0.097	-0.066			-0.042	-0.029			-0.158*	-0.167*
Facility type: Clinic			(0.071)	(0.061)			(0.056)	(0.058)			(0.095)	(0.095)
Facility type: Health post			-0.253	-0.190			-0.420***	-0.449**			-0.381**	-0.336*
Facility type: Health post			(0.156)	(0.137)			(0.163)	(0.195)			(0.156)	(0.178)
Rural			-0.044	-0.049*			-0.023	-0.032			0.019	0.008
Rural			(0.027)	(0.029)			(0.016)	(0.024)			(0.041)	(0.044)
Zone			X				X				X
District				X				X				X
Observations	1,051	1,049	1,049	1,008	1,051	1,049	1,049	694	1,051	1,049	1,049	1,049

* p < .10,

** p < .05,

*** p < .01. Robust standard errors are shown in parentheses.

Table 7

Faith-based facility ownership and probability of healthcare workers correctly diagnosing emergency maternal and neonatal cases.

	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)	(8)
Variables	Correct diagnosis of post-partum haemorrhage				Correct diagnosis of neonatal asphyxia
CHAM Facility	0.011	0.013	0.014	0.023	-0.006	-0.018	-0.040	-0.031
CHAM Facility	(0.019)	(0.018)	(0.018)	(0.022)	(0.027)	(0.028)	(0.031)	(0.031)
Cadre: Medical Assistant		-0.007	0.019	0.012		-0.085	-0.085	-0.116**
Cadre: Medical Assistant		(0.055)	(0.066)	(0.075)		(0.070)	(0.072)	(0.056)
Cadre: Clinical Officer		0.019	0.055	0.069		-0.030	-0.018	-0.042
Cadre: Clinical Officer		(0.056)	(0.066)	(0.076)		(0.072)	(0.072)	(0.056)
Cadre: Nurse		-0.018	0.026	-0.009		-0.023	-0.016	-0.059
Cadre: Nurse		(0.057)	(0.067)	(0.076)		(0.071)	(0.073)	(0.058)
Experience (years)		0.004**	0.004**	0.003*		0.003	0.002	0.001
Experience (years)		(0.002)	(0.002)	(0.002)		(0.002)	(0.002)	(0.002)
Work hours/week		0.001*	0.000	0.001**		0.000	-0.000	-0.000
Work hours/week		(0.000)	(0.000)	(0.000)		(0.000)	(0.000)	(0.000)
Facility type: Health centre			0.018	0.023			-0.028	-0.011
Facility type: Health centre			(0.021)	(0.028)			(0.030)	(0.032)
Facility type: Dispensary			-0.055	-0.169**			-0.013	0.010
Facility type: Dispensary			(0.051)	(0.084)			(0.061)	(0.059)
Facility type: Clinic			-0.088	-0.049			-0.082	-0.024
Facility type: Clinic			(0.074)	(0.068)			(0.088)	(0.073)
Facility type: Health post			-0.203	-0.114			-0.236	-0.136
Facility type: Health post			(0.159)	(0.122)			(0.173)	(0.144)
Rural			-0.019	-0.031			0.038	0.024
Rural			(0.021)	(0.027)			(0.035)	(0.037)
Zone			X				X
District				X				X
Observations	1,051	1,049	1,049	856	1,051	1,049	1,049	1,044

* p < .10,

** p < .05,

*** p < .01. Robust standard errors are shown in parentheses.

Table 8

Faith-based facility ownership and probability of healthcare workers correctly treating childhood illness cases.

	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)	(8)	(9)	(10)	(11)	(12)
Variables	Correct treatment of diarrhoea with severe dehydration				Correct treatment of pneumonia				Correct treatment of malaria with anaemia
CHAM Facility	-0.040	-0.043	-0.088**	-0.057	0.027	0.026	0.006	0.019	0.011	0.009	0.010	0.021
CHAM Facility	(0.035)	(0.035)	(0.038)	(0.038)	(0.028)	(0.028)	(0.031)	(0.030)	(0.033)	(0.034)	(0.036)	(0.034)
Cadre: Medical assistant		-0.059	-0.031	-0.040		-0.085	-0.065	-0.075		-0.265***	-0.240**	-0.212**
Cadre: Medical assistant		(0.104)	(0.104)	(0.096)		(0.071)	(0.076)	(0.073)		(0.101)	(0.097)	(0.093)
Cadre: Clinical officer		-0.029	-0.052	-0.047		-0.075	-0.077	-0.084		-0.214**	-0.192**	-0.169*
Cadre: Clinical officer		(0.106)	(0.105)	(0.096)		(0.073)	(0.078)	(0.075)		(0.103)	(0.098)	(0.093)
Cadre: Nurse		-0.064	-0.063	-0.054		-0.094	-0.077	-0.071		-0.334***	-0.290***	-0.209**
Cadre: Nurse		(0.106)	(0.106)	(0.098)		(0.073)	(0.078)	(0.075)		(0.102)	(0.099)	(0.096)
Experience (years)		-0.006***	-0.005**	-0.004**		-0.004**	-0.003*	-0.003*		0.001	0.001	0.001
Experience (years)		(0.002)	(0.002)	(0.002)		(0.002)	(0.002)	(0.002)		(0.002)	(0.002)	(0.002)
Work hours/week		-0.000	0.000	0.000		-0.000	-0.000	0.000		0.001	0.001**	0.001***
Work hours/week		(0.000)	(0.000)	(0.000)		(0.000)	(0.000)	(0.000)		(0.000)	(0.000)	(0.000)
Facility type: Health centre			-0.154***	-0.156***			-0.073**	-0.066**			0.011	0.012
Facility type: Health centre			(0.040)	(0.041)			(0.032)	(0.033)			(0.038)	(0.039)
Facility types: Dispensary			-0.204**	-0.194**			0.037	0.043			-0.107	-0.123*
Facility types: Dispensary			(0.084)	(0.085)			(0.059)	(0.058)			(0.072)	(0.070)
Facility type: Clinic			-0.111	-0.111			-0.030	-0.009			0.112	0.132
Facility type: Clinic			(0.093)	(0.091)			(0.070)	(0.067)			(0.095)	(0.084)
Facility type: Health post			0.242**	0.258***			-0.174	-0.163			0.051	0.041
Facility type: Health post			(0.113)	(0.097)			(0.158)	(0.152)			(0.178)	(0.166)
Rural			0.063	0.083*			0.028	0.020			-0.037	-0.024
Rural			(0.043)	(0.043)			(0.036)	(0.037)			(0.041)	(0.040)
Zone			X				X				X
District				X				X				X
Observations	1,051	1,049	1,049	1,039	1,051	1,049	1,049	1,044	1,051	1,049	1,049	1,049

* p < .10,

** p < .05,

*** p < .01. Robust standard errors are shown in parentheses.

Table 9

Faith-based facility ownership and probability of healthcare workers correctly treating adult illness cases.

	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)	(8)	(9)	(10)	(11)	(12)
Variables	Correct treatment of diabetes				Correct treatment of tuberculosis				Correct treatment of anaemia in pregnancy
CHAM Facility	0.095***	0.092***	0.075***	0.081***	0.011	0.019	0.009	0.003	0.050	0.033	0.004	0.020
CHAM Facility	(0.026)	(0.027)	(0.029)	(0.029)	(0.024)	(0.023)	(0.025)	(0.029)	(0.034)	(0.034)	(0.037)	(0.037)
Cadre: Medical assistant		-0.057	0.028	0.016		-0.002	0.071	0.076		-0.112	-0.060	-0.061
Cadre: Medical assistant		(0.083)	(0.093)	(0.091)		(0.069)	(0.089)	(0.112)		(0.105)	(0.104)	(0.097)
Cadre: Clinical officer		0.083	0.098	0.093		0.031	0.081	0.108		-0.013	-0.024	-0.019
Cadre: Clinical officer		(0.083)	(0.093)	(0.092)		(0.070)	(0.090)	(0.112)		(0.107)	(0.104)	(0.097)
Cadre: Nurse		-0.127	-0.075	-0.083		-0.090	-0.002	-0.023		-0.075	-0.047	-0.021
Cadre: Nurse		(0.086)	(0.095)	(0.094)		(0.072)	(0.091)	(0.113)		(0.106)	(0.105)	(0.100)
Experience (years)		-0.003*	-0.004**	-0.003*		-0.001	-0.000	-0.001		-0.004*	-0.004*	-0.004*
Experience (years)		(0.002)	(0.002)	(0.002)		(0.002)	(0.001)	(0.002)		(0.002)	(0.002)	(0.002)
Work hours/week		0.000	0.000	0.000		0.000	0.001*	0.001**		-0.001**	-0.001	-0.000
Work hours/week		(0.000)	(0.000)	(0.000)		(0.000)	(0.000)	(0.000)		(0.000)	(0.000)	(0.000)
Facility type: Health centre			-0.116***	-0.117***			-0.046*	-0.069**			-0.137***	-0.136***
Facility type: Health centre			(0.031)	(0.033)			(0.024)	(0.030)			(0.040)	(0.042)
Facility type: Dispensary			-0.146**	-0.181**			-0.117*	-0.206**			-0.095	-0.095
Facility type: Dispensary			(0.071)	(0.078)			(0.068)	(0.085)			(0.082)	(0.082)
Facility type: Clinic			-0.074	-0.065			-0.155**	-0.168**			-0.051	-0.051
Facility type: Clinic			(0.080)	(0.073)			(0.078)	(0.083)			(0.093)	(0.090)
Facility type: Health post			-0.177	-0.114			-0.255*	-0.295*			-0.151	-0.155
Facility type: Health post			(0.161)	(0.133)			(0.138)	(0.172)			(0.178)	(0.160)
Rural			-0.047	-0.055			-0.029	-0.012			0.016	0.033
Rural			(0.034)	(0.037)			(0.026)	(0.034)			(0.041)	(0.043)
Zone			X				X				X
District				X				X				X
Observations	1,051	1,049	1,049	1,049	1,051	1,049	1,049	864	1,051	1,049	1,049	1,049

* p < .10,

** p < .05,

*** p < .01. Robust standard errors are shown in parentheses.

Table 10

Association between faith-based ownership and correct management of emergency maternal and neonatal cases.

	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)	(8)
Variables	Correct management of post-partum haemorrhage				Correct management of neonatal asphyxia
CHAM Facility	0.880	-0.542	-2.665	0.305	2.111	0.500	-2.534	-0.046
CHAM Facility	(2.006)	(2.030)	(2.198)	(2.161)	(2.199)	(2.234)	(2.366)	(2.357)
Cadre: Medical assistant		-5.125	-1.214	-4.103		-4.133	-0.732	-2.839
Cadre: Medical assistant		(6.022)	(6.171)	(5.057)		(6.782)	(6.516)	(5.776)
Cadre: Clinical officer		5.327	6.252	4.688		7.852	9.573	7.539
Cadre: Clinical officer		(6.140)	(6.275)	(5.109)		(6.902)	(6.585)	(5.853)
Cadre: Nurse		1.443	4.481	1.406		3.632	6.804	5.116
Cadre: Nurse		(6.133)	(6.240)	(5.252)		(6.901)	(6.593)	(5.949)
Experience (years)		-0.124	-0.094	-0.119		-0.058	-0.077	-0.076
Experience (years)		(0.129)	(0.129)	(0.120)		(0.142)	(0.136)	(0.130)
Work hours/week		-0.015	-0.006	0.014		-0.009	-0.014	0.009
Work hours/week		(0.023)	(0.024)	(0.024)		(0.026)	(0.027)	(0.027)
Facility type: Health centre			-6.935***	-3.560			-7.659***	-5.007*
Facility type: Health centre			(2.410)	(2.470)			(2.614)	(2.645)
Facility type: Dispensary			11.003***	-9.837***			-1.584	-0.816
Facility type: Dispensary			(4.261)	(3.679)			(4.543)	(4.497)
Facility type: Clinic			-9.944*	-3.665			-12.063**	-5.505
Facility type: Clinic			(5.790)	(5.523)			(5.898)	(5.650)
Facility type: Health post			-14.193	-9.658			-21.023**	-19.002**
Facility type: Health post			(9.538)	(8.941)			(10.238)	(7.923)
Rural			0.841	-1.684			3.555	0.544
Rural			(2.566)	(2.605)			(2.703)	(2.673)
Zone			X				X
District				X				X
Constant	52.578***	55.895***	56.074***	68.095***	53.925***	54.868***	58.967***	79.664***
Constant	(1.041)	(6.210)	(6.638)	(8.912)	(1.160)	(7.069)	(6.946)	(8.147)
Observations	1,051	1,049	1,049	1,049	1,051	1,049	1,049	1,049
R-squared	0.000	0.023	0.071	0.210	0.001	0.025	0.094	0.213

Notes. This table displays the coefficients from the Ordinary Least Squares regression model following Equation

1. Clinical vignette data of healthcare workers employed at CHAM and government facilities from the 2018/2019 Malawi HHFA is used for analysis. The outcome variables are defined as the proportion of correct management actions measured by a score of 0-100. The omitted reference categories for control variables are Cadre: Doctor and Facility type: Hospital. Statistical level of significance is indicated as;

* p < .10,

** p < .05,

*** p < .01. Robust standard errors clustered on districts are shown in parentheses.

References

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Articles in this issue

DOI: https://doi.org/10.15566/cjgh.v11i1.853 | Journal eISSN: 2167-2415

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Language: English

Page range: 46 - 63

Submitted on: Sep 1, 2023

Accepted on: Nov 3, 2023

Published on: Feb 25, 2024

Published by: Global Health Institute at William Carey International University

In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services

Keywords:

healthcare ownership,

non-profit faith-based providers,

© 2024 Wiktoria Tafesse, Martin Chalkley, published by Global Health Institute at William Carey International University
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.

Volume 11 (2024): Issue 1