Figure. 1
The causal models and underlying hypothesis
Table 1
Mean sample characteristics by country of origin
| All | Pakistan | Iran | Turkey | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Immigration characteristics: | ||||
| Arrived before 1990 | 0.427 | 0.279 | 0.553 | 0.360 |
| Arrived 1990-2000 | 0.572 | 0.721 | 0.447 | 0.639 |
| Refugee | 0.360 | 0.043 | 0.748 | 0.042 |
| Family reunification, spouse | 0.503 | 0.765 | 0.230 | 0.694 |
| Family reunification, parent | 0.132 | 0.191 | 0.020 | 0.250 |
| Age at immigration | 23.959 | 24.137 | 25.289 | 21.894 |
| Years since immigration | 14.766 | 13.322 | 16.003 | 14.093 |
| Unemployment in the year of arrival | 8.477 | 8.366 | 8.501 | 8.527 |
| Background characteristics: | ||||
| Woman | 0.477 | 0.557 | 0.403 | 0.521 |
| Iran | 0.449 | 0.000 | 1 000 | 0.000 |
| Pakistan | 0.240 | 1 000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Turkey | 0.311 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 1 000 |
| From rural area | 0.277 | 0.377 | 0.064 | 0.508 |
| From a larger city | 0.440 | 0.344 | 0.687 | 0.156 |
| From a minor city | 0.282 | 0.278 | 0.248 | 0.334 |
| Speaks English well | 0.173 | 0.191 | 0.248 | 0.050 |
| Speaks Danish well | 0.542 | 0.431 | 0.736 | 0.347 |
| Qualifications from country of origin: | ||||
| No education | 0.045 | 0.054 | 0.017 | 0.080 |
| Primary education | 0.389 | 0.426 | 0.175 | 0.669 |
| High school degree | 0.370 | 0.295 | 0.543 | 0.177 |
| Vocational degree | 0.061 | 0.049 | 0.091 | 0.029 |
| Advanced degree | 0.132 | 0.174 | 0.172 | 0.042 |
| Experience (years) | 1 833 | 1 393 | 2 442 | 1 292 |
| Destination-country qualifications: | ||||
| No education | 0.670 | 0.857 | 0.508 | 0.758 |
| Primary education | 0.052 | 0.060 | 0.008 | 0.110 |
| High school degree | 0.018 | 0.005 | 0.026 | 0.016 |
| Vocational degree | 0.095 | 0.032 | 0.157 | 0.055 |
| Advanced degree | 0.162 | 0.043 | 0.298 | 0.059 |
| Experience (years) | 4.306 | 3.373 | 4.095 | 5.330 |
| Employed in 2006 | 0.615 | 0.541 | 0.650 | 0.621 |
Notes: 756 observations.
Table 2
Employment rates for given level of pre- and post-migration qualifications
| Foreign education | Destination country | Destination country | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| education | language | ||||
| None | 0.457 | None | 0.524 | Not good Danish | 0.448 |
| Primary | 0.554** | Primary | 0.641 | Good Danish | 0.757** |
| High School degree | 0.689 | High School degree | 0.571 | ||
| Vocational degree | 0.617* | Vocational degree | 0.754** | ||
| Advanced degree | 0.640** | Advanced degree | 0.910** | ||
| Foreign labour market | Destination country labour market | ||||
| experience | experience | ||||
| 0-2 | 0.603 | 0-2 | 0.378 | ||
| 3-5 | 0.658 | 3-5 | 0.667** | ||
| 6+ | 0.632 | 6+ | 0.910** | ||
Notes: 756 observations. Tests for significant difference to lowest group: * p &< 0.1, ** p &< 0.05
Table 3
Model I & II: Logit models for being employed. Marginal effects
| Baseline model (I) | Language complementarity model (II) | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Estimate | Sth.err. | Estimate | Sth.err. | |
| Foreign labour market experience | 0.002 | (0.005) | 0.002 | (0.005) |
| Foreign high school degree (HS) | 0.109** | (0.042) | 0.045 | (0.056) |
| Foreign vocational degree (Voc) | 0.057 | (0.072) | 0.014 | (0.108) |
| Foreign advanced degree (Adv) | 0.125** | (0.050) | -0.018 | (0.091) |
| Woman | -0.212** | (0.038) | -0.190** | (0.037) |
| Iran | -0.096 | (0.060) | -0.149** | (0.056) |
| Pakistan | -0.091* | (0.048) | -0.010** | (0.047) |
| From rural area | 0.086** | (0.042) | 0.059 | (0.042) |
| From a larger city | -0.018 | (0.046) | 0.004 | (0.044) |
| Age at immigration | -0.012** | (0.004) | -0.005 | (0.004) |
| Years since immigration | 0.006 | (0.003) | 0.003 | (0.003) |
| Refugee | -0.030 | (0.071) | -0.010 | (0.070) |
| Family reunification, spouse | -0.074 | (0.054) | -0.042 | (0.053) |
| Speaks Danish well (SDW) | 0.192** | (0.052) | ||
| SDW * HS | 0.057 | (0.078) | ||
| SDW * Voc | 0.019 | (0.141) | ||
| SDW* Adv | 0.122 | (0.112) | ||
Note: 756 observations. Robust standard errors in parenthesis. * p&<0.1; ** p&<0.05.
Table 4
Model III: Probit models for being employed and educated.
| Probit | Bivariate probit (model III) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Employment | Further education | Employment | ||||
| Estimate | Sth.err. | Estimate | Sth.err. | Estimate | Sth.err. | |
| (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | |
| Foreign experience | 0.007 | (0.017) | -0.008 | (0.020) | 0.010 | (0.016) |
| Foreign high school degree | 0.217* | (0.129) | 0.539** | (0.145) | -0.014 | (0.117) |
| Foreign vocational degree | 0.107 | (0.225) | 0.307 | (0.275) | 0.020 | (0.208) |
| Foreign advanced degree | 0.194 | (0.172) | 1.047** | (0.179) | -0.174 | (0.150) |
| Woman | -0.635** | (0.109) | 0.339** | (0.122) | -0.578** | (0.010) |
| Iran | -0.373** | (0.186) | 0.559** | (0.218) | -0.463** | (0.171) |
| Pakistan | -0.202 | (0.137) | -0.321* | (0.182) | -0.051 | (0.128) |
| From rural area | 0.219* | (0.128) | -0.276 | (0.168) | 0.109 | (0.114) |
| From a larger city | -0.018 | (0.135) | 0.072 | (0.134) | 0.048 | (0.125) |
| Age at immigration | -0.028** | (0.014) | -0.030* | (0.016) | -0.015 | (0.012) |
| Years since immigration | 0.003 | (0.011) | 0.068** | (0.013) | -0.024** | (0.010) |
| Refugee | -0.166 | (0.213) | -0.073 | (0.231) | -0.270 | (0.191) |
| Family reunification, spouse | -0.130 | (0.157) | -0.619** | (0.178) | 0.075 | (0.141) |
| Further education | 0.882** | (0.141) | 2.168** | (0.095) | ||
| Unemployment in the year of arrival | 0.049** | (0.023) | ||||
Note: 756 observations. * p<0.1; ** p<0.05.