Figure 1
Exercise and ischemia activated paracrine angiogenesis program in skeletal muscle. Exercise and ischemia activate multiple signaling pathways in the skeletal muscle including AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), hypoxia inducible factors (HIF), and transcriptional regulators such as peroxisome proliferator activated receptors (PPARs), estrogen-related receptors and peroxisome proliferator activated receptor co-activator 1 alpha (PGC1α). These factors drive paracrine angiogenesis programs that promote vascular regeneration. They may also drive secretion of other myokines that can activate or recruit muscle stem cells, endothelial progenitor cells, or immune cells such as macrophages to promote vascular regeneration.