Fig. 1.
IR satellite images of two PLs with different cloud signatures: (a) Comma-shaped PL over the Norwegian Sea on 25 March 2019 (image from AVHRR channel 4) and (b) Spiraliform PL over the Barents Sea on 20 December 2002 (image from MODIS spectral band 31).
Fig. 2.
Map of the marginal seas and other geographical features in the (a) Northern Hemisphere: (1) Hudson Bay, (2) Labrador Sea, (3) Baffin Bay, (4) Irminger Sea, (5) Iceland Sea, (6) Greenland Sea, (7) Norwegian Sea, (8) Barents Sea, (9) Kara Sea, (10) Laptev Sea, (11) East Siberian Sea, (12) Chukchi Sea, (13) Beaufort Sea, (14) Sea of Japan, (15) Sea of Okhotsk, (16) Bering Sea, (17) Gulf of Alaska, and (b) Southern Hemisphere: (1) Bellingshausen Sea, (2) Amundsen Sea, (3) Ross Sea, (4) Weddell Sea.
Table 1.
Information about climatology studies of PLs developed using a subjective tracking method.
Table 2.
Information about climatology studies of PLs developed using an objective tracking method applied to reanalysis data or simulated variables.
AMPSSouthern Hemisphere2009–2012AllStoll et al. (2018)ERA-I
ASRv2Global
Northern Hemisphere1979 − 2016
2000–2012AllMichel et al. (2018)ERA-INordic Seas1979–2014Oct.–Apr.
Fig. 3.
Geographic distribution of PLs in the (a, c) Northern Hemisphere and (b) Southern Hemisphere, obtained applying an objective tracking algorithm to (a, b) ERA-I and (c) ASR reanalyses. The colour represents the annual average of PL duration within a radius of 220 km, which is calculated by multiplying the number of detected PL points by the temporal resolution of the reanalysis. From Stoll et al. (2018). © 2018 Royal Meteorological Society.
Fig. 4.
AVHRR channel 4 image of a comma-shaped PL over the South Pacific Ocean on 14 July 2019.
Fig. 5.
Ocean surface wind speed (colour shading) and direction (arrows) derived from the observations of ASCAT on the 25 March 2019 at 18:40 UTC, when a PL (see Fig. 1a) was dissipating over the Norwegian coast.
Fig. 6.
Multi-radar mosaic of liquid water equivalent precipitation rate associated with a PL (see Fig. 1a) on 25 March 2019 at 15:00 UTC.
Fig. 7.
Geopotential height (contour lines) and wind speed (colour shading) at 950 hPa on 8 March 2019 at 06:00 UTC from ERA5. The contour lines are drawn every 4 dam and the wind speed is in m s−1. The geopotential height and wind fields show a PL over the Labrador Sea.
Fig. 8.
PL developed over the Barents Sea (see Fig. 1b) simulated with the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model: (a) mean wind speed at 10 m, (b) latent heat flux, (c) sensible heat flux and (d) relative humidity at 2 m on 19 December 2002 at 10:00 UTC (+34 h). The SST and the sea ice concentration are provided by the NEMO model and are maintained constant during the simulation © 2020. Wu (2021). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Fig. 9.
Perturbation structure at the steering level in a (a) reverse-shear and (c) forward-shear flow. The solid lines represent the streamlines, and the dashed lines represent the isotherms. The thick black arrows represent the phase propagation vector and the steering level wind. The shaded grey region shows a comma-shaped cloud associated with the perturbation. The zonal component of the wind (u) at different pressure levels (p) is shown for the (b) reverse-shear and (d) forward-shear flow. The steering level wind is represented by the black arrows, and the direction of the thermal wind is schematically represented by the red arrows. Adapted from Businger and Reed (1989). © American Meteorological Society. Used with permission.
Fig. 10.
PL track density obtained by applying a statistical downscaling method to (top left) ERA-I and (top right) NCEP-NCAR reanalyses, and to the multimodel mean of 20 Global Climate Models for the (middle row, left) historical and (middle row, right) future RCP8.5 scenarios. (Bottom) Change in PL track density between the historical and the future periods. Model agreement at 66% and 80% levels is indicated by the hatched and cross-hatched areas, respectively. The PL track density is the number of storms per century within a radius of 100 km. From Romero and Emanuel (2017). © American Meteorological Society. Used with permission.
Table 3.
Information about the studies on the future climatology of PLs developed using dynamical downscaling and an objective tracking method.
periodFuture periodScenariosZahn and von Storch (2010)ECHAM5/
MPI-OMCOSMO-CLMNorth Atlantic1960–19892070–2099B1, A1B, A2Landgren et al. (2019a)CESM Large EnsembleHCLIM-ALARONordic Seas1990–20052026−2035
2071–2080RCP8.5