References
- 1Arkes, H. R., Hackett, C., & Boehm, L. (1989). The generality of the relation between familiarity and judged validity. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 2(2), 81–94. DOI: 10.1002/bdm.3960020203
- 2Barreto, M., Ellemers, N., Piebinga, L., & Moya, M. (2010). How nice of us and how dumb of me: The effect of exposure to benevolent sexism on women’s task and relational self-descriptions. Sex Roles, 62, 532–544. DOI: 10.1007/s11199-009-9699-0
- 3Béna, J., Rihet, M., Carreras, O., & Terrier, P. (2023). Repetition could increase the perceived truth of conspiracy theories. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 1–10. DOI: 10.3758/s13423-023-02276-4
- 4Bergsieker, H. B., Leslie, L. M., Constantine, V. S., & Fiske, S. T. (2012). Stereotyping by omission: Eliminate the negative, accentuate the positive. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102, 1214–1238. DOI: 10.1037/a0027717
- 5Bornstein, R. (1989). Exposure and affect: Overview and meta-analysis of research, 1968–1987. Psychological Bulletin, 106, 65–289. DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.106.2.265
- 6Brashier, N. M., Eliseev, E. D., & Marsh, E. J. (2020). An initial accuracy focus prevents illusory truth. Cognition, 194. DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2019.104054
- 7Calogero, R. M., & Jost, J. T. (2011). Self-subjugation among women: exposure to sexist ideology, self-objectification, and the protective function of the need to avoid closure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(2), 211–228. DOI: 10.1037/a0021864
- 8Cheryan, S., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2000). When positive stereotypes threaten intellectual performance: The psychological hazards of ‘model minority’ status. Psychological Science, 11(5), 399–402. DOI: 10.1111/1467-9280.00277
- 9Crocker, J., & Major, B. (1989). Social stigma and self-esteem: The self-protective properties of stigma. Psychological Review, 96(4), 608–630. DOI: 10.1037/0033-295X.96.4.608
- 10Czopp, A. M., Kay, A. C., & Cheryan, S. (2015). Positive stereotypes are pervasive and powerful. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(4), 451–463. DOI: 10.1177/1745691615588091
- 11Dechêne, A., Stahl, C., Hansen, J., & Wänke, M. (2010). The truth about the truth: A meta-analytic review of the truth effect. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 14(2), 238–257. DOI: 10.1177/1088868309352251
- 12De keersmaecker, J., Unkelbach, C., & Roets, A. (2024). Truth-by-repetition across languages. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition. DOI: 10.1037/mac0000175
- 13DiFonzo, N., Beckstead, J. W., Stupak, N., & Walders, K. (2016). Validity judgments of rumors heard multiple times: The shape of the truth effect. Social Influence, 11(1), 22–39. DOI: 10.1080/15534510.2015.1137224
- 14Effron, D. A. (2022). The moral repetition effect: Bad deeds seem less unethical when repeatedly encountered. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 151(10), 2562–2585. DOI: 10.1037/xge0001214
- 15Effron, D. A., & Raj, M. (2020). Misinformation and morality: Encountering fake-news headlines makes them seem less unethical to publish and share. Psychological Science, 31(1), 75–87. DOI: 10.1177/0956797619887896
- 16Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Buchner, A., & Lang, A. G. (2009). Statistical power analyses using G* Power 3.1: Tests for correlation and regression analyses. Behavior Research Methods, 41(4), 1149–1160. DOI: 10.3758/BRM.41.4.1149
- 17Fazio, L. K., Brashier, N. M., Payne, B. K., & Marsh, E. J. (2015). Knowledge does not protect against illusory truth. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 144(5), 993–1002. DOI: 10.1037/xge0000098
- 18Giles, H., & Johnson, P. (1987). Ethnolinguistic identity theory: A social psychological approach to language maintenance. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 68, 69–99. DOI: 10.1515/ijsl.1987.68.69
- 19Götz, F. M., Gosling, S. D., & Rentfrow, P. J. (2022). Small effects: The indispensable foundation for a cumulative psychological science. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 17(1), 205–215. DOI: 10.1177/1745691620984483
- 20Greene, J., & Haidt, J. (2002). How (and where) does moral judgment work? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6(12), 517–523. DOI: 10.1016/S1364-6613(02)02011-9
- 21Haidt, J. (2001). The emotional dog and its rational tail: a social intuitionist approach to moral judgment. Psychological Review, 108(4), 814–834. DOI: 10.1037/0033-295X.108.4.814
- 22Hasher, L., Goldstein, D., & Toppino, T. (1977). Frequency and the conference of referential validity. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 16(1), 107–112. DOI: 10.1016/S0022-5371(77)80012-1
- 23Hassan, A., & Barber, S. J. (2021). The effects of repetition frequency on the illusory truth effect. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, 6(1), 1–12. DOI: 10.1186/s41235-021-00301-5
- 24Hilton, J. L., & Von Hippel, W. (1996). Stereotypes. Annual Review of Psychology, 47(1), 237–271. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.psych.47.1.237
- 25Inzlicht, M., & Ben-Zeev, T. (2003). Do high-achieving female students underperform in private? The implications of threatening environments on intellectual processing. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 796–805. DOI: 10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.796
- 26Lakens, D. (2014). Performing high-powered studies efficiently with sequential analyses. European Journal of Social Psychology, 44(7), 701–710. DOI: 10.1002/ejsp.2023
- 27Lindström, B., Jangard, S., Selbing, I., & Olsson, A. (2018). The role of a ‘common is moral’ heuristic in the stability and change of moral norms. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 147(2), 228–242. DOI: 10.1037/xge0000365.
- 28Macrae, C. N., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2000). Social cognition: Thinking categorically about others. Annual Review of Psychology, 51(1), 93–120. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.psych.51.1.93
- 29Mattavelli, S., Béna, J., Corneille, O., & Unkelbach, C. (2024). People underestimate the influence of repetition on truth judgments (and more so for themselves than for others). Cognition, 242, 105651. DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2023.105651
- 30Mattavelli, S., Béna, J., Corneille, O., & Unkelbach, C. (2024). Repetition increases perceived truth of interpersonal statements from both politically congruent and incongruent sources. DOI: 10.31234/osf.io/4pwq2
- 31Mattavelli, S., Bianchi, C., & Motterlini, M. (2023, May 16). ‘Questioning’ the Truth Effect: Processing information in interrogative form reduces (but does not cancel) repetition-induced truth. DOI: 10.31219/osf.io/x9s36
- 32Mattavelli, S., Corneille, O., & Unkelbach, C. (2023). Truth by repetition… Without repetition: Testing the effect of instructed repetition on truth judgments. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 49(8), 1264–1279. DOI: 10.1037/xlm0001170.
- 33Montoya, R. M., Horton, R. S., Vevea, J. L., Citkowicz, M., & Lauber, E. A. (2017). A re-examination of the mere exposure effect: The influence of repeated exposure on recognition, familiarity, and liking. Psychological Bulletin, 143(5), 459–498. DOI: 10.1037/bul0000085
- 34Mullen, B., & Johnson, C. (1990). Distinctiveness-based illusory correlations and stereotyping: A meta-analytic integration. British Journal of Social Psychology, 29(1), 11–28. DOI: 10.1111/j.2044-8309.1990.tb00883.x
- 35Nadarevic, L., & Aßfalg, A. (2017). Unveiling the truth: Warnings reduce the repetition-based truth effect. Psychological Research, 81, 814–826. DOI: 10.1007/s00426-016-0777-y
- 36Oğuz Taşbaş, E. H., & Unkelbach, C. (2022). Repeating stereotypes: Increased belief and subsequent discrimination. European Journal of Social Psychology, 52(3), 528–537. DOI: 10.1002/ejsp.2835
- 37Pennycook, G., Cannon, T. D., & Rand, D. G. (2018). Prior exposure increases perceived accuracy of fake news. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 147(12), 1865–1880. DOI: 10.1037/xge0000465
- 38Pillai, R. M., Fazio, L. K., & Effron, D. A. (2023). Repeatedly encountered descriptions of wrongdoing seem more true but less unethical: Evidence in a naturalistic setting. Psychological Science, 34(8), 863–874. DOI: 10.1177/09567976231180578
- 39Reber, R., & Schwarz, N. (1999). Effects of perceptual fluency on judgments of truth. Consciousness and Cognition, 8(3), 338–342. DOI: 10.1006/ccog.1999.0386
- 40Ridgeway, C. L. (Ed.). (1992). Gender, interaction, and inequality. New York: Springer. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4757-2199-7
- 41Rouder, J. N., Speckman, P. L., Sun, D., Morey, R. D., & Iverson, G. (2009). Bayesian t tests for accepting and rejecting the null hypothesis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 16, 225–237. DOI: 10.3758/PBR.16.2.225
- 42Rudman, L. A. (1998). Self-promotion as a risk factor for women: The costs and benefits of counterstereotypical impression management. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(3), 629–645. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.74.3.629
- 43Sinclair, L., & Kunda, Z. (1999). Reactions to a black professional: Motivated inhibition and activation of conflicting stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(5), 885–904. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.77.5.885
- 44Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(5), 797–811. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.797
- 45Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1986).
The social identity theory of intergroup behavior . In S. Worchel & W. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 7–24). Nelson Hall. - 46Unkelbach, C. (2006). The learned interpretation of cognitive fluency. Psychological Science, 17(4), 339–345. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01708
- 48Unkelbach, C., Koch, A., & Alves, H. (2019). The evaluative information ecology: On the frequency and diversity of “good” and “bad”. European Review of Social Psychology, 30(1), 216–270. DOI: 10.1080/10463283.2019.1688474
- 47Unkelbach, C., Koch, A., Silva, R. R., & Garcia-Marques, T. (2019). Truth by repetition: Explanations and implications. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 28(3), 247–253. DOI: 10.1177/0963721419827854
- 49Weaver, K., Garcia, S. M., Schwarz, N., & Miller, D. T. (2007). Inferring the popularity of an opinion from its familiarity: a repetitive voice can sound like a chorus. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(5), 821–833. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.92.5.82
- 50Zajonc, R. B. (1968). Attitudinal effects of mere exposure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Monographs, 9, 1–27. DOI: 10.1037/h0025848
