Have a personal or library account? Click to login
Do Birds of a Feather Always Flock Together? Deep-Level Diversity as an Organizing Social Principle for Task-Relevant Relationships Cover

Do Birds of a Feather Always Flock Together? Deep-Level Diversity as an Organizing Social Principle for Task-Relevant Relationships

By: Amy Wax and  Catherine Warren  
Open Access
|Feb 2024

References

  1. Allen, R. S., Dawson, G., Wheatley, K., & White, C. S. (2008). Perceived diversity and organizational performance. Employee Relations, 30(1), 20–33.
  2. Allgeier, A. R., & Byrne, D. (1973). Attraction toward the opposite sex as a determinant of physical proximity. The Journal of Social Psychology, 90(2), 213–219. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.1973.9712561
  3. Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Addison-Wesley.
  4. Bacharach, S. B., Bamberger, P. A., & Vashdi, D. (2005). Diversity and homophily at work: Supportive relations among white and African-American peers. Academy of Management Journal, 48(4), 619–644. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2005.17843942
  5. Bell, R. R., & Mascaro, G. F. (1972). Interpersonal attraction as a basis of informal organization: Comment and review. Academy of Management Journal, 15(2), 233–236. https://doi.org/10.5465/254914
  6. Bell, S. T. (2007). Deep-level composition variables as predictors of team performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(3), 595–615. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.92.3.595
  7. Bell, S. T., Villado, A. J., Lukasik, M. A., Belau, L., & Briggs, A. L. (2011). Getting specific about demographic diversity variable and team performance relationships: A meta-analysis. Journal of Management, 37(3), 709–743. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206310365001
  8. Bernstein, E. S. (2016). Leading teams. In J. D. Margolis (Ed.), Organizational behavior. Harvard Business Publishing.
  9. Black, H. K. (1974). Physical attractiveness and similarity of attitude in interpersonal attraction. Psychological Reports, 35(1, Pt 2), 403–406. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1974.35.1.403
  10. Blanz, M., Mummendy, A., & Otten, S. (1995). Positive-negative asymmetry in social discrimination: The impact of stimulus valence and size and status differentials on intergroup evaluations. British Journal of Social Psychology, 34(4), 409–419. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8309.1995.tb01074.x
  11. Blau, P. (1977). Inequality and heterogeneity. Free Press.
  12. Bollen, J., Gonçalves, B., Ruan, G., & Mao, H. (2011). Happiness is assortative in online social networks. Artificial Life, 17(3), 237–251. https://doi.org/10.1162/artl_a_00034
  13. Bond, M., Byrne, D., & Diamond, M. J. (1968). Effect of occupational prestige and attitude similarity on attraction as a function of assumed similarity of attitude. Psychological Reports, 23(3, Pt. 2), 1167–1172. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1968.23.3f.1167
  14. Bond, R. M., & Sweitzer, M. D. (2022). Political homophily in a large-scale online communication network. Communication Research, 49(1), 93–115.
  15. Boutyline, A., & Willer, R. (2017). The social structure of political echo chambers: Variation in ideological homophily in online networks. Political psychology, 38(3), 551–569.
  16. Bowerman, C. E., & Day, B. R. (1956). A test of the theory of complementary needs as applied to couples during courtship. American Sociological Review, 21(5), 602–605. https://doi.org/10.2307/2089096
  17. Breckler, S. J., & Wiggins, E. C. (1989). Affect versus evaluation in the structure of attitudes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 25(3), 253–271. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1031(89)90022-X
  18. Brewer, M. B. (1979). In-group bias in the minimal intergroup situation: A cognitive-motivational analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 86(2), 307–324. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.86.2.307
  19. Brodbeck, F. C., Kerschreiter, R., Mojzisch, A., Frey, D., & Schulz-Hardt, S. (2002). The dissemination of critical, unshared information in decision-making groups: The effects of pre-discussion dissent. European Journal of Social Psychology, 32(1), 35–56. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.74
  20. Byrne, D. (1961). Interpersonal attraction and attitude similarity. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 62(3), 713–715. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0044721
  21. Byrne, D. (1971). The attraction paradigm. Academic Press.
  22. Byrne, D. (1997). An overview (and underview) of research and theory within the attraction paradigm. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 14(3), 417–431. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407597143008
  23. Byrne, D., & Griffitt, W. (1966). A developmental investigation of the law of attraction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 4(6), 699–702. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0023993
  24. Byrne, D., Griffitt, W., Hudgins, W., & Reeves, K. (1969). Attitude similarity-dissimilarity and attraction: Generality beyond the college sophomore. The Journal of Social Psychology, 79(2), 155–161. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.1969.9922403
  25. Chen, F. F., & Kenrick, D. T. (2002). Repulsion or attraction? Group membership and assumed attitude similarity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(1), 111–125. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.83.1.111
  26. Cunningham, G. B., & Sagas, M. (2004). Examining the main and interactive effects of deep-and surface-level diversity on job satisfaction and organizational turnover intentions. Organizational Analysis, 12(3), 319–332.
  27. Davis, D. (1981). Implications for interaction versus effectance as mediators of the similarity-attraction relationship. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 17(1), 96–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1031(81)90009-3
  28. Davis, J. M. (1984). Attraction to a group as a function of attitude similarity and geographic distance. Social Behavior and Personality, 12(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.1984.12.1.1
  29. Dijkstra, P., & Barelds, D. P. (2008). Do people know what they want: A similar or complementary partner? Evolutionary Psychology, 6(4), 595–602. https://doi.org/10.1177/147470490800600406
  30. Epstein, E., & Guttman, R. (1984). Mate selection in man: Evidence, theory, and outcome. Social Biology, 31(3–4), 243–278. https://doi.org/10.1080/19485565.1984.9988579
  31. Ertug, G., Brennecke, J., Kovács, B., & Zou, T. (2022). What does homophily do? A review of the consequences of homophily. Academy of Management Annals, 16(1), 38–69. https://doi.org/10.5465/annals.2020.0230
  32. Fry, R., & Parker, K. (2018, November). Early benchmarks show ‘post-millennials’ on track to be most diverse, best-educated generation yet. Pew Research Center: Social and Demographic Trends. Retrieved from http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2018/11/15/early-benchmarks-show-post-millennials-on-track-to-be-most-diverse-best-educated-generation-yet/
  33. Gillespie, B. J., Frederick, D., Harari, L., & Grov, C. (2015). Homophily, close friendship, and life satisfaction among gay, lesbian, heterosexual, and bisexual men and women. PloS One, 10(6), e0128900.
  34. Goldberg, C. B. (2005). Relational demography and similarity-attraction in interview assessments and subsequent offer decisions: Are we missing something? Group & Organization Management, 30(6), 597–624. https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601104267661
  35. Gomathy, D. C., Vamsi, M. V., Kumar, M. Y. J., & Pragnish, M. K. J. (2022). Effects of globalization on human resource development and management in India. International Journal of Scientific Research in Engineering and Management, 6(3), 1–6.
  36. Good, L. R., & Nelson, D. A. (1973). Effects of person-group and intragroup attitude similarity on perceived group attractiveness and cohesiveness: II. Psychological Reports, 33(2), 551–560. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1973.33.2.551
  37. Harrison, D. A., Price, K. H., & Bell, M. P. (1998). Beyond relational demography: Time and the effects of surface- and deep-level diversity on work group cohesion. Academy of Management Journal, 41(1), 96–107. https://doi.org/10.5465/256901
  38. Harrison, D. A., Price, K. H., Gavin, J. H., & Florey, A. T. (2002). Time, teams, and task performance: Changing effects of surface-and deep-level diversity on group functioning. Academy of Management Journal, 45(5), 1029–1045. https://doi.org/10.5465/3069328
  39. Haythorn, W. W. (1968). The composition of groups: A review of the literature. Acta Psychologica, 28(2), 97–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/0001-6918(68)90008-5
  40. Hentschel, T., Shemla, M., Wegge, J., & Kearney, E. (2013). Perceived diversity and team functioning: The role of diversity beliefs and affect. Small Group Research, 44(1), 33–61.
  41. Hewstone, M., Rubin, M., & Willis, H. (2002). Intergroup bias. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 575–604. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135109
  42. Huber, G. A., & Malhotra, N. (2017). Political homophily in social relationships: Evidence from online dating behavior. The Journal of Politics, 79(1), 269–283.
  43. Isagozawa, N., & Fuji, K. (2023). An exploratory study of cultural differences in behavior and intentions in workplace apologies: With the perspective of responsibility. Japanese Psychological Research (pp. 1–12).
  44. Jackson, S. E., May, K. E., Whitney, K., Guzzo, R. A., & Salas, E. (1995). Understanding the dynamics of diversity in decision-making teams. In Team effectiveness and decision making in organizations (pp. 204–261).
  45. Jamieson, D. W., Lydon, J. E., & Zanna, M. P. (1987). Attitude and activity preference similarity: Differential bases of interpersonal attraction for low and high self-monitors. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53(6), 1052–1060. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.53.6.1052
  46. Jehn, K. A., Northcraft, G. B., & Neale, M. A. (1999). Why differences make a difference: A field study of diversity, conflict and performance in workgroups. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44(4), 741–763. https://doi.org/10.2307/2667054
  47. Kerckhoff, A. C., & Davis, K. E. (1962). Value consensus and need complementarity in mate selection. American Sociological Review, 27(3) 295–303. https://doi.org/10.2307/2089791
  48. Klohnen, E. C., & Mendelsohn, G. A. (1998). Partner selection for personality characteristics: A couple-centered approach. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24(3), 268–278. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167298243004
  49. Kristof-Brown, A., Barrick, M. R., & Stevens, C. K. (2005). When opposites attract: A multi-sample demonstration of complementary person-team fit on extraversion. Journal of Personality, 73, 935–958. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00334.x
  50. Krivitsky, P. N., Hunter, D. R., Morris, M., & Klumb, C. (2021). ERGM 4.0: new features and improvements. arXiv preprint arXiv:2106.04997.
  51. Layton, R. A., Loughry, M. L., Ohland, M. W., & Ricco, G. D. (2010). Design and validation of a web-based system for assigning members to teams sing instructor-specified criteria. Advances in Engineering Education, 2(1), 1–9.
  52. Lazarsfeld, P. F., & Merton, R. K. (1954). Friendship as a social process: A substantive and methodological analysis. In Freedom and control in modern society (18, pp. 18–66).
  53. Lincoln, J. R., & Miller, J. (1979). Work and friendship ties in organizations: A comparative analysis of relation networks. Administrative Science Quarterly, 24(2), 181–199. https://doi.org/10.2307/2392493
  54. Luo, S., & Klohnen, E. C. (2005). Assortative mating and marital quality in newlyweds: A couple-centered approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88(2), 304–326. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.88.2.304
  55. McPherson, M., Smith-Lovin, L., & Cook, J. M. (2001). Birds of a feather: Homophily in social networks. Annual Review of Sociology, 27(1), 415–444. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.415
  56. Milliken, F. J., & Martins, L. L. (1996). Searching for common threads: Understanding the multiple effects of diversity in organizational groups. Academy of Management Review, 21(2), 402–433.
  57. Ministry of Foreign Affairs. (2021). Annual report of statistics on Japanese nationals overseas. Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
  58. Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare. (2021). Summary of ‘employment status of foreign nationals’ report. Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare. Retrieved April 4, 2021, from https://www.mhlw.go.jp/stf/newpage_16279.html
  59. Mohammed, S., & Angell, L. C. (2004). Surface- and deep-level diversity in workgroups: Examining the moderating effects of team orientation and team process on relationship conflict. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 25(8), 1015–1039. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.293
  60. Montoya, R. M., & Horton, R. S. (2012). A meta-analytic investigation of the processes underlying the similarity-attraction effect. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 30(1), 64–94. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407512452989
  61. Montoya, R. M., Horton, R. S., & Kirchner, J. (2008). Is actual similarity necessary for attraction? A meta-analysis of actual and perceived similarity. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 25(6), 889–922. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407508096700
  62. Mummendy, A., Otten, S., Berger, U., & Kessler, T. (2000). Positive-negative asymmetry in social discrimination: Valence of evaluation and salience of categorization. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26(10), 1258–1270. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167200262007
  63. Ormiston, M. E. (2016). Explaining the link between objective and perceived differences in groups: The role of the belonging and distinctiveness motives. Journal of Applied Psychology, 101(2), 222–236. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000051
  64. Pilkington, N. W., & Lydon, J. E. (1997). The relative effect of attitude similarity and attitude dissimilarity on interpersonal attraction: Investigating the moderating roles of prejudice and group membership. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23(2), 107–122. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167297232001
  65. Pinel, E. C., & Long, A. E. (2012). When I’s meet: Sharing subjective experience with someone from the outgroup. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38(3), 296–307. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167211433878
  66. Pinel, E. C., Long, A. E., Landau, M. J., Alexander, K., & Pyszczynski, T. (2006). Seeing I to I: A pathway to interpersonal connectedness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(2), 243–257. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.90.2.243
  67. Qualtrics [computer software]. (2018). Retrieved from https://www.qualtrics.com/
  68. Roberts, N. K., Williams, R. G., Schwind, C. J., Sutyak, J. A., McDowell, C., Griffen, D., Wall, J., Sanfey, H., Chestnut, A., Meier, A. H., Wohltmann, C., Clark, T. R., & Wetter, N. (2014). The impact of brief team communication, leadership and team behavior training on ad hoc team performance in trauma care settings. The American Journal of Surgery, 207(2), 170–178.
  69. Robins, G., Pattison, P., Kalish, Y., & Lusher, D. (2007). An introduction to exponential random graph (p*) models for social networks. Social Networks, 29(2), 173–191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socnet.2006.08.002
  70. Rosenbaum, M. E. (1986). The repulsion hypothesis: On the nondevelopment of relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1156–1166. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.51.6.1156
  71. Rosenbaum, M. E., & Holtz, R. (1985). The minimal intergroup discrimination effect: Out-group derogation, not in-group favorability. In 93rd Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Los Angeles.
  72. Ruef, M., Aldrich, H. E., & Carter, N. M. (2003). The structure of founding teams: Homophily, strong ties, and isolation among US entrepreneurs. American Sociological Review, 68(2), 195–222. https://doi.org/10.2307/1519766
  73. Rychlak, J. F. (1965). The similarity, compatibility, or incompatibility of needs in interpersonal selection. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2(3), 334. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0022388
  74. Sachs, D. H. (1976). The effects of similarity, evaluation, and self-esteem on interpersonal attraction. Representative Research in Social Psychology, 7(1), 44–50.
  75. Shemla, M., & Wegge, J. (2019). Managing diverse teams by enhancing team identification: The mediating role of perceived diversity. Human Relations, 72(4), 755–777.
  76. Shemla, M., Meyer, B., Greer, L., & Jehn, K. A. (2016). A review of perceived diversity in teams: Does how members perceive their team’s composition affect team processes and outcomes? Journal of Organizational Behavior, 37(S1), S89–S106.
  77. Shrum, W., Cheek, N. H., Jr., & MacD, S. (1988). Friendship in school: Gender and racial homophily. Sociology of Education, 61(4), 227–239. https://doi.org/10.2307/2112441
  78. Singh, R., & Ho, S. Y. (2000). Attitudes and attraction: A new test of the attraction, repulsion and similarity-dissimilarity asymmetry hypotheses. British Journal of Social Psychology, 39(Pt 2), 197–211. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466600164426
  79. Singh, R., & Tan, L. S. (1992). Attitudes and attraction: A test of the similarity-attraction and dissimilarity-repulsion hypotheses. British Journal of Social Psychology, 31(3), 227–238.
  80. Singh, R., Ho, L. J., Tan, H. L., & Bell, P. A. (2007a). Attitudes, personal evaluations, cognitive evaluation and interpersonal attraction: On the direct, indirect and reverse-causal effects. British Journal of Social Psychology, 46(Pt 1), 19–42. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466606X104417
  81. Singh, R., Lin, P. K. F., Tan, H. L., & Ho, L. J. (2008a). Evaluations, attitude similarity, and interpersonal attraction: Testing the hypothesis of weighting interference across responses. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 30(4), 241–252. https://doi.org/10.1080/01973530802375052
  82. Singh, R., Ng, R., Ong, E. L., & Lin, P. K. F. (2008b). Different mediators for the age, sex, and attitude similarity effects in interpersonal attraction. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 30(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/01973530701665165
  83. Singh, R., Yeo, S. E., Lin, P. K. F., & Tan, L. (2007b). Multiple mediators of the attitude similarity-attraction relationship: Dominance of inferred attraction and subtlety of affect. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 29(1), 61–74. https://doi.org/10.1080/01973530701331007
  84. Sjögren, P., Fagerström, B., Kurdve, M., & Callavik, M. (2018). Managing emergent changes: ad hoc teams’ praxis and practices. International Journal of Managing Projects in Business, 11(4), 1086–1104.
  85. Smeaton, G., Byrne, D., & Murnen, S. K. (1989). The repulsion hypothesis revisited: Similarity irrelevance or dissimilarity bias? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56(1), 54–59. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.56.1.54
  86. Smith, J. A., McPherson, M., & Smith-Lovin, L. (2014). Social distance in the United States: Sex, race, religion, age, and education homophily among confidants, 1985 to 2004. American Sociological Review, 79(3), 432–456. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122414531776
  87. Snyder, C. R., & Endelman, J. R. (1979). Effects of interpersonal similarity on physical distance and self-reported attraction: A comparison of uniqueness and reinforcement theory predictions. Journal of Personality, 47(3), 492–505. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1979.tb00628.x
  88. Stasser, G., & Titus, W. (1985). Pooling of unshared information in group decision making: Biased information sampling during discussion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48(6), 1467–1478. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.48.6.1467
  89. Stroebe, W., Insko, C. A., Thompson, V. D., & Layton, B. D. (1971). Effects of physical attractiveness, attitude similarity, and sex on various aspects of interpersonal attraction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 18(1), 79–91. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0030710
  90. Tajfel, H. (1981). Human groups and social categories: Studies in social psychology. Cambridge University Press.
  91. Tajfel, H. (1982). Social psychology of intergroup relations. Annual Review of Psychology, 33, 1–39. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ps.33.020182.000245
  92. Tajfel, H., Billig, M. G., Bundy, R. P., & Flament, C. (1971). Social categorization and intergroup behavior. European Journal of Social Psychology, 1, 149–178. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2420010202
  93. Turner, J. C., & Oakes, P. J. (1986). The significance of the social identity concept for social psychology with reference to individualism, interactionism and social influence. British Journal of Social Psychology, 25(3), 237–252. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8309.1986.tb00732.x
  94. Twyman, M., Newman, D. A., DeChurch, L., & Contractor, N. (2022). Teammate invitation networks: The roles of recommender systems and prior collaboration in team assembly. Social Networks, 68, 84–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socnet.2021.04.008
  95. Vandenberg, S. G. (1972). Assortative mating, or who marries whom? Behavior Genetics, 2, 127–157. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01065686
  96. Watson, D., Klohnen, E. C., Casillas, A., Simms, E. N. Haig, J., & Berry, D. S. (2004). Match makers and deal breakers: Analyses of assortative mating in newlywed couples. Journal of Personality, 72(5), 1029–1068. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-3506.2004.00289.x
  97. Wax, A., DeChurch, L. A., & Contractor, N. S. (2017). Self-organizing into winning teams: Understanding the mechanisms that drive successful collaborations. Small Group Research, 48(6), 665–718. https://doi.org/10.1177/1046496417724209
  98. Westphal, J. D., & Zajac, E. J. (1995). Who shall govern? CEO/board power, demographic similarity, and new director selection. Administrative Science Quarterly, 40(1), 60–83.
  99. Winch, R. F., Ktsanes, T., & Ktsanes, V. (1954). The theory of complementary needs in mate-selection: An analytic and descriptive study. American Sociological Review, 19(3), 241–249. https://doi.org/10.2307/2087753
  100. Wyant, K. W., & Gardner, G. W. (1977). Interpersonal evaluations, attitudes and attraction. Journal of Research in Personality, 11(1), 356–367. https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-6566(77)90044-7
  101. Zhu, M., Huang, Y., & Contractor, N. S. (2013). Motivations for self-assembling into project teams. Social Networks, 35(2), 251–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socnet.2013.03.001
DOI: https://doi.org/10.21307/connections-2019.048 | Journal eISSN: 2816-4245 | Journal ISSN: 0226-1766
Language: English
Page range: 113 - 129
Published on: Feb 18, 2024
Published by: International Network for Social Network Analysis (INSNA)
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services
Publication frequency: 1 issue per year

© 2024 Amy Wax, Catherine Warren, published by International Network for Social Network Analysis (INSNA)
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.