Polish Journal of Sport and Tourism Feed

Effects of A 12-Week General Preparatory Training Programme on Body Composition, Maximal Strength, Neuromuscular Performance, and Aerobic Capacity in Elite Youth Track and Field Athletes: A Controlled Longitudinal Intervention Study

Fri, 25 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMT

Introduction. General preparatory training underpins physiological and neuromuscular development in track and field, yet controlled evidence in elite youth athletes remains limited. The aim of the study was to examine the effects of a 12-week general preparatory training programme on body composition, maximal strength, neuromuscular performance, sprint ability, and aerobic fitness in elite youth track and field athletes.Material and Methods. Forty-nine elite youth athletes were allocated to an experimental group (EG, n = 26) or a control group (CG, n = 23). The EG completed a structured 12-week periodized program, while the CG continued habitual training. Pre- and post-intervention assessments included body composition, 1RM squat, deadlift, and snatch, countermovement jump, 30-m sprint, VO₂max, and the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 1. Group × time effects were analyzed using repeated-measures analysis or linear mixed-effects models (p < .05).Results. The EG achieved significantly greater improvements than the CG in body composition, maximal strength, intermittent running performance, and aerobic fitness. Female athletes in the EG also demonstrated reduced body fat and increased lean body mass, whereas body mass and BMI changed minimally in both groups. Improvements in the CG were modest.Conclusions. A structured 12-week general preparatory training programme produced superior adaptations in body composition, maximal strength, and aerobic and neuromuscular performance compared with habitual training, supporting its inclusion in long-term athlete development and preseason conditioning for elite youth track and field athletes.

Built Environment as a Correlate and Predictor of Physical Activity Behaviour Among University Students in Nigeria

Fri, 25 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMT

Introduction. Adopting an active lifestyle remains one of the most affordable and cost-effective means to reduce the risk of hypertension, cardiovascular disease, metabolic disorders, depression and other chronic diseases that are increasingly reported among students in the modern technology-driven world. This study aimed to explore the contributions of the built environment to the physical activity behaviour of university students in Nigeria.Material and methods. Correlational survey research design was adopted. The population was 1,648 university students drawn from three tertiary institutions in Kwara State, Nigeria. The population was stratified into Federal, State and Private institutions, using proportionate and random sampling techniques to select a sample of 412 respondents. Two instruments were used for data collection: the researcher-developed University Built Environment Predictors of Physical Activity Questionnaire (UBE-PPAQ; r = 0.85) and the standardised International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ). The IPAQ established concurrent reliability ranging from 0.78 to 0.92 in the Nigerian context. Ethical approval was obtained from the University of Ilorin. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 21.0 software was used for data analysis which comprised descriptive and inferential statistical analysis using one-way ANOVA and hierarchical multiple regression at an alpha level of 0.05.Results. The findings showed that 234 (56.8%) respondents were physically active. Bike paths and trails were reported as unavailable by all respondents, whereas sidewalks, street lighting, sports/exercise facilities, and sidewalk interconnectivity were reported as available by all respondents. Built environment features significantly predicted physical activity behaviour, explaining 75.1% of its variance (R = 0.867, R² = 0.751, Adjusted R² = 0.747), F(4, 404) = 287.450, p < 0.001. Gender (β = 0.161, p < 0.001), sports/exercise facilities (β = 0.552, p < 0.001), sidewalks (β = 0.387, p < 0.001), sidewalk interconnectivity (β = 0.296, p < 0.001), and street lighting (β = 0.286, p < 0.001) were significant positive predictors of physical activity behaviour.Conclusions. Improving university built environment features may be an effective strategy for promoting sustainable physical activity among university students in Nigeria.

Wavelet Analysis of the Vertical Ground Reaction Force Acting on the Forefoot (vGRF_F) During the Romberg Test

Fri, 25 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMT

Introduction. The primary objective of this study was to perform a wavelet analysis of the time-course of the vertical ground reaction force acting on the forefoot (vGRF_F) during the Romberg test. The secondary objective was to conduct a time-frequency energy analysis of this signal.Material and Methods. The study included 93 female volleyball players (age: 15.29 ± 0.49 years, body height: 174.14 ± 7.36 cm, body mass: 62.67 ± 9.41 kg). The participants performed the test on a treadmill (Noraxon FDM-T) equipped with a high-resolution pressure sensor matrix. A time-frequency analysis of the signal originating from the treadmill was conducted using the Morse wavelet.Results. The average percentage contribution of signal energy in three analyzed frequency bands and the inter-band energy flow were determined as a function of eye status (open vs. closed) during the Romberg test.Conclusions. Appropriately preprocessed, the vGRF_F signal can serve as a viable alternative to traditional stabilographic metrics. It possesses high discriminative capability, particularly within the low-frequency range of 0.05 to 1 Hz.

Effects of Modified Sleeper Stretch Versus Modified Cross-Body Stretch on Posterior Shoulder Pain and Performance Measures Among Badminton Players

Fri, 25 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMT

Introduction. Shoulder joint, being highly mobile, is particularly vulnerable to overuse injuries in overhead athletes. Posterior shoulder pain in these individuals is commonly associated with Glenohumeral Internal Rotation Deficit (GIRD), which can adversely affect performance and functional ability. The present study compared the effectiveness of the modified sleeper stretch (MSS) and the modified cross-body stretch (MCBS) on posterior shoulder pain and performance measures in amateur badminton players.Material and Methods. Twenty-two amateur badminton players with posterior shoulder pain were allocated into two groups (n =11 each). Group A received MSS, while Group B performed MCBS. Each group received 3 sessions/week for 4 weeks. Outcome measures including pain, functional disability, internal rotation range of motion, handgrip strength, upper limb power, and coordination were noted at baseline and after 4 weeks of intervention.Results. Both groups demonstrated statistically significant improvements across all outcome measures (p < 0.001). However, when compared, Group B showed significantly greater improvements than Group A (p < 0.05).Conclusions. The findings suggest that while both stretching techniques are effective, MCBS may provide superior benefits improving pain and function in amateur badminton players.

Acceptance of Tattoos in the Hospitality Industry

Fri, 25 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMT

Introduction. Despite growing social acceptance, tattoos may still be subject to evaluation in the workplace, especially in the service sector. In the hotel industry, staff appearance is linked to the image of the property, guest experience and service standards. The aim of the study was to assess the acceptance of tattoos among hotel employees in two dimensions: organisational, referring to the rules and practices in the hotels studied, and consumer-related, covering the opinions of people using hotel services.Material and methods. The study was conducted in the Lubelskie Voivodeship using the diagnostic survey method, based on two original survey questionnaires. The research covered 45 hotels and 154 people declaring experience of using hotel services. Tattoo acceptance was analysed in relation to hotel category and size, type of position, hotel department, degree of employee contact with guests and tattoo location on the body. Descriptive statistics, Pearson’s chi-square test and Fisher’s exact test were applied.Results. The level of acceptance of tattoos among hotel employees was generally high in both analytical dimensions. However, tattoo admissibility differed depending on hotel category, with higher acceptance recorded in 3- and 4-star hotels than in 1- and 2-star properties. No significant relationship was found between tattoo acceptance and hotel size. Acceptance also varied according to the type of position, degree of guest contact and tattoo location. The highest acceptance was observed for back-of-house positions and departments with limited or indirect guest contact, whereas tattoos on the face and neck were assessed most restrictively.Conclusions. Attitudes towards tattoos among hotel employees are characterised by conditional acceptance. Tattoos are no longer a clearly disqualifying employee attribute; however, their acceptance depends on the organisational context, position and visibility. The findings indicate the need to develop clear rules concerning visible tattoos among hotel staff.

Feasibility and Preliminary Effects of a Six-Week Equipment-Free High-Intensity Interval Resistance Training Intervention in University Students: A Nonrandomized Pilot Study

Fri, 25 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMT

Introduction. Physical inactivity is linked to poorer mental health and an increased risk of chronic diseases. High-intensity interval resistance training (HIRT) may be a strategy for improving well-being. The aim of this pilot study was to examine the feasibility and preliminary effects of a six-week equipment-free HIRT program on physical fitness, body composition, and mental health symptoms in university students.Material and Methods. In a longitudinal, non-randomized controlled study, 16 undergraduates (intervention group [IG], n = 7; control group [CG], n = 9; mean age 21.0 ± 2.3 years; 94% male) were assessed before and after the intervention. The IG completed biweekly 31-minute HIRT sessions for six weeks. Outcomes included pushup test, handgrip strength, squat jump, medicine ball throw, Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 1, and mental health measured by the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale. Baseline-adjusted ANCOVA tested group differences at post-intervention.Results. Significant group effects favoured the IG for push-up performance (p = .014) and cardiorespiratory fitness (Yo-Yo test; p = .025). No significant between-group differences were found for handgrip strength, squat jump, seated medicine ball throw, body composition, anxiety, or depressive symptoms (all p > .05). Within the IG, total minutes of high-intensity activity were negatively correlated with fat mass (r = -0.856, p = .014) and depressive symptoms (r = -0.943, p = .001).Conclusions. This non-randomized pilot study suggests that a six-week equipment-free HIRT intervention is feasible and may improve upper-body muscular endurance and cardiorespiratory fitness in university students. No significant between-group effects were observed for anxiety, depressive symptoms, or body composition. Associations between time spent at high intensity, fat mass, and depressive symptoms should be interpreted as exploratory and hypothesis-generating, requiring confirmation in adequately powered randomized controlled trials.

Time-Of-Day Effects on Calf-Muscle Electromyography During Static Single-Leg Balance in Young Active Males

Tue, 14 Jul 2026 00:00:00 GMT

Introduction. Circadian rhythms influence neuromuscular performance, yet their effect on postural muscle activation during balance tasks remains unclear. This study aimed to determine time-of-day differences in calf-muscle EMG activity during static single-leg stance.Material and Methods. Ten healthy, physically active males (24.8 ± 0.8 years) performed three 15-s single-leg balance tests at 07:00-07:30 and 17:00-17:30 on the same day. EMG signals were recorded according to SENIAM standards, normalized to maximal voluntary isometric contractions (MVICs), and evaluated as a percentage of MVIC (%MVC). Paired t-tests and effect sizes (Cohen’s dz) were used to compare sessions.Results. EMG amplitudes were consistent in two time points. Mean differences between morning and evening were minimal (Soleus: –0.12 μV; Medial gastrocnemius: 0.13 μV; Lateral gastrocnemius: 0.83 μV), with 95% confidence intervals crossing zero and small effect sizes (dz < 0.30).Conclusions. The EMG activity of the calf muscles does not change with the time of day in young, physically active men. These findings support the physiological stability of tonic postural muscles under low-intensity conditions and suggest that balance training or rehabilitation tasks of this type can be performed flexibly throughout the day without affecting neuromuscular engagement.

Functional Fitness in Girls Aged 11–14 Practising Acrobatic Gymnastics

Tue, 14 Jul 2026 00:00:00 GMT

Introduction. Professional training in acrobatic gymnastics carries a high risk of injury. The use of appropriate tests allows for the detection of abnormalities in the biomechanical chain of the athletes, identification of a predisposition to injury, and the introduction of appropriate corrective exercises. One of the tools used for comprehensive functional assessment is the Functional Movement Screen (FMS). The aim of the study was to assess movement patterns using the Functional Movement Screen (FMS) in girls aged 11-14 who practise acrobatic gymnastics, and to compare the results with a control group of peers who do not participate in organised physical activity.Material and Methods. The study was conducted on a group of 148 girls. The study group consisted of 110 female acrobatic gymnasts. The control group consisted of 38 girls who reported no participation in any organised physical activity. Functional assessment was carried out using the Functional Movement Screen.Results. The athletes in the study achieved significantly higher scores across all FMS tests. The highest scores were recorded among the acrobats in the ASLR right test (2.901 ± 0.316; p < 0.001) and ASLR left test (2.891 ± 0.388; p < 0.001). No statistically significant differences were found only in the shoulder mobility test. Furthermore, no statistically significant differences were observed between the gymnasts’ age groups in any of the individual FMS tests.Conclusions. The greatest differences in the results obtained between the study groups were observed in the ASLR test. No significant differences between the study groups were found for the shoulder girdle mobility test. The findings confirm the need to incorporate exercises into the training programme aimed at improving neuromuscular control and mobility, particularly in terms of shoulder girdle mobility, which may reduce the risk of injury and improve training effectiveness.

Barbell Velocity in Strength Training – A Literature Review

Tue, 14 Jul 2026 00:00:00 GMT

Introduction. Barbell velocity is widely used in strength training and Olympic weightlifting as an indicator of movement quality, training intensity and neuromuscular performance. In recent years, velocity-based training (VBT) has become increasingly popular due to its applications in load prescription, fatigue monitoring and autoregulation. The aim of this narrative review is to summarize the current knowledge (2015–2025) on the use of barbell velocity in strength exercises (squat, deadlift, bench press) and Olympic lifts (snatch, clean and jerk) and their derivatives.Material and Methods. Relevant literature published between 2015 and 2025 was identified through searches of PubMed, ScienceDirect, Google Scholar and EBSCO databases, using keywords related to barbell velocity, load-velocity relationships and velocity-based training. Both original studies and review articles were included to provide a broad synthesis of evidence.Results. Across studies, peak barbell velocity (PBV), mean barbell velocity (MBV), and mean propulsive velocity (MPV) show strong and consistent relationships with Percentage of One-Repetition Maximum (%1RM), supporting their use for estimating maximal strength and regulating training intensity. Olympic lifts exhibit higher velocity values due to their ballistic nature, while classical strength exercises show stable load-velocity profiles. Measurement tools differ in precision, influencing the comparability of results.Conclusions. Barbell velocity is a practical and valuable indicator in strength and Olympic weightlifting training. It enables accurate load prescription, monitoring of readiness, and assessment of technical execution. However, the lack of methodological standardization across studies remains a limitation. Further research is needed to unify measurement procedures and validate emerging technologies.

The Effect of a Progressive Core Exercise Program on Balance, Posture, and Functional Fitness in Sedentary Female University Students: A Randomized Controlled Study

Tue, 14 Jul 2026 00:00:00 GMT

Introduction. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of an eight-week progressive core exercise program on balance, posture, and functional fitness in sedentary female university students.Material and Methods. Forty sedentary female university students aged 18–25 years were randomized into a core exercise group (CEG, n = 20) and a control group (CG, n = 20). CEG performed a progressive core exercise program 3 days a week for 8 weeks (40 min/session in weeks 1-4; 45 min/session in weeks 5-8). Outcome measures included posture (New York Posture Analysis), static balance (Flamingo Balance Test), dynamic balance (Y-Balance Test), muscular endurance (plank, side plank, sit-ups, V-ups), flexibility (sit-and-reach), and muscular strength (handgrip, back and leg dynamometry). Effect sizes were calculated using the Morris (2008) approach.Results. Statistically significant improvements and large effect sizes were observed in muscular endurance, flexibility, static balance, and postural alignment in CEG (p < 0.05; Morris d = 0.48-1.70). Within-group improvements were also noted in muscular strength parameters; however, between-group differences did not reach statistical significance (p > 0.05). No significant changes were detected in CG.Conclusions. An eight-week progressive core exercise program significantly improved muscular endurance, flexibility, static balance, and postural alignment in sedentary female university students. Core exercise represents a feasible, low-cost, and effective intervention for this population.

Fitness Apps Vs. Personal Trainers: User Perceptions, Preferences, and the Future of Digital Support in Physical Activity

Tue, 14 Jul 2026 00:00:00 GMT

Introduction. Although fitness apps are widely used, few studies have directly compared them with personal trainers from the user’s perspective. This study aimed to assess user perceptions of fitness apps versus personal trainer services, focusing on motivation, trust in information, and support preferences.Material and methods. The study involved 501 gym members aged 18–50 years (M = 29.5, SD = 7.4) from Katowice, Poland. Data were collected via a structured questionnaire covering exercise habits, motivations, experiences with fitness apps and personal trainers. Statistical analyses examined gender differences and the perceived usefulness of different forms of training support.Results. Health was the primary exercise motivation (52.3%), with gender-related differences. While 80.6% used fitness apps, only 1.4% viewed them as equivalent to personal trainers. Apps were valued for tracking progress, dietary monitoring, and affordability. However, most users felt they could not replace trainers due to lack of real-time feedback, technique correction, and interpersonal connection. Still, 30.5% saw potential in emerging technologies – especially AI – as future complements or alternatives.Conclusions. Fitness apps are seen as supportive but not substitutive tools for personal training. While technology increases accessibility and autonomy in fitness behaviors, personalized, interactive coaching remains a key element of perceived training effectiveness.

Anthropometric and Physical Fitness Differences Between Polish and Romanian Physical Education Students: A Sex-Specific Perspective

Tue, 14 Jul 2026 00:00:00 GMT

Introduction. The study aimed to compare anthropometric characteristics and selected components of physical fitness between physical education students from one university in Poland and one university in Romania, while also considering sex-related differences.Material and methods. The study involved 515 undergraduate students of physical education: 258 students from Poland (180 males, 78 females) and 257 students from Romania (170 males, 87 females). Body height, body mass, and body mass index (BMI) were measured. Selected components of physical fitness were assessed using three tests from the Eurofit battery: the Plate Tapping Test, the Sit-up Test, and the Standing Long Jump Test. Statistical analyses examined the effects of group and sex on anthropometric and physical performance outcomes.Results. Anthropometric differences between the examined Polish and Romanian university cohorts were generally small, although students from the Polish university demonstrated slightly higher body height, body mass, and BMI values. In contrast, clear differences were observed in selected components of physical fitness, depending on the type of test performed. Students from the Polish university achieved better results in muscular endurance and explosive power tests, whereas students from the Romanian university performed faster in upper-limb movement speed tasks. Significant sex effects were observed across all anthropometric and physical performance variables.Conclusions. The findings highlight the importance of considering biological sex and programme-specific context in the design and evaluation of physical education curricula. They also emphasize the need for multicenter longitudinal research incorporating detailed measurements of body composition, activity levels, and training load to better understand the mechanisms underlying differences in selected physical fitness components among physical education students.

Sex Differences in Passing Performance in Elite International Football: A Multidimensional Analysis of Pass Length and Pitch Zone in Fifa World Cups

Tue, 14 Jul 2026 00:00:00 GMT

Introduction. This study examined sex differences in passing performance using match data from the 2022 FIFA Men’s World Cup and the 2023 FIFA Women’s World Cup. A total of 128 team observations per tournament were analyzed using StatsBomb event data.Material and Methods. Passing performance was assessed using pass frequency, pass completion rate, mean pass distance, pass length categories (short, medium, and long), and pitch zones (defensive, middle, and attacking thirds).Results. Men showed significantly higher values for number of passes, pass completion rate, and mean pass distance than women. Women exhibited a higher proportion of short passes and a lower proportion of medium passes, whereas no clear difference was observed in long-pass proportion. Although pass distribution across pitch zones was similar between sexes, women attempted fewer passes in the defensive and middle thirds. Significant interactions between sex, pass length, and pitch zone were observed for all variables (all p < 0.05), indicating that sex differences depended on tactical context.Conclusions. These findings suggest that sex differences in football passing performance are context-dependent rather than uniform. Integrating pass length and spatial context provides a more comprehensive understanding of performance differences between men’s and women’s football and may inform coaching and performance analysis in elite football.

Effectiveness of Physical-Literacy-Based Online Education on Indices of Physical Activity in High-School Adolescents

Thu, 02 Apr 2026 00:00:00 GMT

Introduction. This study aimed to examine the effectiveness of a physical-literacy-based online education program on physical activity levels (PAL) and physical literacy (PL) components in high-school adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic.Material and methods. A total of 544 Croatian adolescents (aged 14-18 years) participated in a 12-week intervention. Participants were randomly assigned to either an intervention group (n = 270) or a control group (n = 274). PAL was assessed using the Physical Activity Questionnaire for Adolescents (PAQ-A), while PL knowledge and perception were evaluated using the CAPL-2 Knowledge and Understanding (CAPL-2-KU) and PLAYself questionnaires. A total of 466 students completed both pre- and post-tests. Data were analyzed using two-way repeated measures ANOVA.Results. PAL decreased in both groups (PAQ-A: from 2.70 ± 0.70 to 2.52 ± 0.69; p < 0.05), with a smaller decline in the intervention group (−0.15) than in the control group (−0.21). CAPL-2-KU scores significantly increased in the intervention group (from 9.00 ± 2.04 to 9.73 ± 1.73; p < 0.001; η² = 0.08), indicating improved PL knowledge. Small but significant improvements were also observed in PLAYself total scores (from 68.46 ± 12.74 to 69.36 ± 11.93; p = 0.001; η² = 0.02). Gender analysis showed greater improvements among girls, particularly in CAPL-2-KU (η² = 0.13) and PLAYself total (η² = 0.02).Conclusions. The PL-based online education program effectively enhanced adolescents’ PL knowledge and self-perception and mitigated the decline in PAL during a period of reduced school activity. Future interventions should integrate knowledge-based and experiential components to promote sustained engagement in physical activity.

Examining the Effects of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Lifestyle and Perceived Health among Infected and Non-Infected Hungarian Adults

Thu, 02 Apr 2026 00:00:00 GMT

Introduction. The COVID-19 pandemic disrupted daily routines, physical activity patterns, and mental health on a global scale. Mental health and subjective physical health are closely interrelated: pandemic-induced stress, social isolation, and fear have documented negative effects on both psychological and physical well-being. The objective of this study was to examine differences in lifestyle changes and perceived health – both general and mental – between Hungarian adults who had been infected with COVID-19 and those who had not, and to identify associations among key health-related indicators within both groups.Material and Methods. A cross-sectional survey with retrospective comparison was conducted between January and August 2023 among 806 Hungarian adults recruited via convenience sampling through five universities. A validated five-part questionnaire battery was administered, covering socio-demographic characteristics, recreational habits, life satisfaction (SWLS; LSS-SF), psychological distress (DASS-42), psychological well-being (Ryff Scale – Shortest Version), and psychological capital (PCQ). The analysed sample comprised n = 780 participants (49.2% male, 50.8% female; 50% infected, 50% non-infected). Data were analysed using SPSS 26, applying descriptive statistics and Pearson correlation analysis, with a significance threshold of alpha = 0.05.Results. The majority of respondents rated their general health as good or excellent regardless of infection status (infected: 83.7%; non-infected: 87.7%). A strong positive correlation was found between general health perception and mental health (r = 0.649, p < .001). Lifestyle changes were reported by more than three-quarters of participants in both groups, with reduced sport participation and limited social contact as the most affected domains. Significant group differences between infected and non-infected participants were observed in several lifestyle categories.Conclusions. COVID-19 infection was associated with specific differences in lifestyle and health perception. Subjective health remained generally positive across both groups. The findings underline the need for integrated health promotion strategies – addressing physical activity, social engagement, and mental health simultaneously – in the post-pandemic recovery of the Hungarian adult population.

Resistance Training Effects on Functional Fitness, Muscular Strength and Explosive Power in Postmenopausal Women are Intensity-Dependent

Thu, 02 Apr 2026 00:00:00 GMT

Introduction. This study investigated the differential effects of low-intensity (LRT) versus high-intensity resistance training (HRT) on muscle strength, power, and functional fitness in community-dwelling older women, an area where the specific influence of training intensity remains unclear despite the known benefits of RT in this population.Material and Methods. Thirty-six postmenopausal women were randomly allocated, by simple randomization, to three equal groups: LRT, HRT, and sedentary control (SC). Participants in the RT groups trained three times per week for eight weeks at either 40% (LRT) or 80% (HRT) of their one-repetition maximum (1RM). Muscle strength was evaluated using 1RM test. Lower- and upper-limb explosive power was measured via countermovement jump (CMJ) and medicine ball throw (MBT), respectively. Functional fitness was further examined using the 30-second arm curl test (30s-ACT), 30-second chair stand test (30s-CST), back scratch (BS), chair sit-and-reach (CSR), stepping down test (SDT), and stepping up test (SUT).Results. In the LRT and HRT groups, functional fitness (including the 30s-ACT, 30s-CST, BS, CSR, SDT, and SUT) and muscle strength (1RM) were significantly improved at 8 weeks compared with the SC group. Only the HRT group exhibited significant enhancements in explosive power (both CMJ and MBT). Compared with the LRT, the HRT showed additional significant improvements in overall functional fitness, whole-body strength and explosive power.Conclusions. The benefits of RT on functional ability, strength, and explosive power among postmenopausal women are strongly dependent on training intensity.

Effects of Blood Flow Restricted Resistance Training on Peak Upper Body Strength in Young Male Population

Thu, 02 Apr 2026 00:00:00 GMT

Introduction. Various strength training methods exist, with Blood Flow Restricted Resistance Training (BFRRT) emerging as a novel approach. This study aimed to compare BFRRT effectiveness against traditional resistance training for improving upper body strength in young males.Material and Methods. Sixty male participants (18-26 years) were assigned to the experimental group or the control group that received BFRRT or conventional resistance training respectively (n = 30 each). Both groups completed four weeks of bench press training (three sessions weekly) with the BFRRT group applying cuff pressures at 40-80% of arterial occlusion pressure. Upper body strength was assessed using 1-repetition maximum bench press testing before and after 4 weeks of intervention. Data were analysed using GraphPad Prism (version 9.5.1). Paired sample t-test was used to analyse within-group data and independent-samples t-test was used to analyse between-group differences.Results. The BFRRT group demonstrated strength increases from 80.33 ± 8.19 kg to 89.50 ± 8.23 kg (Δ = 9.17 kg; p < 0.05). The control group improved from 81.50 ± 9.11 kg to 87.67 ± 8.78 kg (Δ = 6.17 kg; p < 0.05). Although within-group gains were significant for both protocols, between-group comparison did not reach statistical significance (p > 0.05).Conclusions. Both training methods enhanced upper body strength effectively, with BFRRT demonstrating greater improvement potential. BFRRT integration into resistance programs may optimize strength development in young adults.

Risk of Red-S Syndrome among Individuals Who Regularly Engage in Physical Activity

Thu, 02 Apr 2026 00:00:00 GMT

Introduction. Regular physical activity increases energy expenditure and requires adequate energy intake to maintain physiological homeostasis. Inadequate energy intake can lead to low energy availability (LEA), which is a key factor in the development of relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S), a syndrome affecting multiple systems in the human body. The aim of this study was to assess the risk of RED-S. The study was conducted among physically active young adults in Poland and involved the identification of dietary and behavioral factors associated with an increased risk of RED-S.Material and methods. A total of 151 participants (72 women, 79 men) aged 22.09 ± 2.2 years completed an online questionnaire assessing dietary habits, hydration, physical activity, and energy intake. Basal metabolic rate was calculated using the Mifflin-St. Jeor equation, and lean body mass was calculated using the James (1976) formula. Total energy expenditure was compared to the intake to estimate energy deficits.Results. Approximately 70% of participants had a negative energy balance, and most consumed four or fewer meals per day. Logistic regression showed that a negative energy balance significantly increased the risk of RED-S in both women (OR = 3.82) and men (OR = 8.50). In men, inadequate hydration and low meal frequency were also significant predictors.Conclusions. The results indicate that physically active young adults, especially men, may be at increased risk of RED-S due to poor eating habits. Better nutrition education and energy balance monitoring are recommended.

Relationship between Physical Activity, Perceived Stress, and Psychological Well-Being in University Students

Thu, 02 Apr 2026 00:00:00 GMT

Introduction. Perceived stress has reached concerning levels among university students, and physical activity (PA) has emerged as a relevant strategy for mitigation. This study aimed to examine whether perceived stress mediates the relationship between physical activity (PA), assessed as total volume, and IPAQ-SF intensity components (vigorous, moderate, and walking), and psychological well-being (PWB) in university students.Material and methods. A cross-sectional study was conducted with 103 students from the University of Málaga (21.7 ± 2.3 years). PA was assessed using the IPAQ-SF (MET-min/week), stress with the PSS-14, and PWB with the Ryff-39. Analyses included descriptive statistics, ANOVA/t-tests, Pearson/Spearman correlations, and a simple mediation model (PROCESS macro).Results. Overall, 66.99% of participants reported high PA levels (≥3,000 MET-min/week). Total PA averaged 4,860 ± 3,497 MET-min/week (range = 0–12,852). Perceived stress (PSS-14) was 27.31 ± 9.30 points (range = 6-56), and global psychological well-being (RYFF_GLOBAL) averaged 4.40 ± 0.58 on a 1-6 scale. Total PA was negatively associated with perceived stress (r = −0.28; p = 0.005), and perceived stress was negatively associated with PWB (r = −0.46; p < 0.001). The indirect effect of PA on well-being through stress was significant (ab = 0.13; 95% CI [0.04, 0.24]). Students with high PA levels (≥3,000 MET-min/week) reported significantly lower perceived stress than those with low-to-moderate PA (p = 0.021).Conclusions. Physical activity appears to contribute to university students’ psychological well-being primarily through its association with reduced perceived stress. University-based interventions should integrate regular exercise with stress-management strategies to optimize students’ psychological well-being.

Salivary Alpha-Amylase and Cortisol Changes in Response to Basketball Training in Men and Women

Sun, 18 Jan 2026 00:00:00 GMT

Introduction. This study aimed to determine changes in the level of alpha-amylase and cortisol in the saliva of male and female basketball players after one session of basketball training. Additionally, the study examined whether differences existed between females and males in the levels of these biomarkers in response to physical exertion.Material and Methods. The study involved 30 athletes from academic leagues (17 females and 13 males). The training session consisted of warm-up, conditioning, and tactical drills and lasted for 90 minutes. A sample of saliva was obtained before and after the training session. Salivary flow, alpha-amylase, and cortisol were measured. Wilcoxon Signed-Rank and U-Mann were used for statistical analysis at a significance level of 0.05.Results. After the training session, a significant increase in salivary cortisol levels was observed in females (p < .05), whereas in males, a significant increase (p < .05) was noted in salivary alpha-amylase levels. There were no significant differences in alpha-amylase and cortisol levels between females and males before and after exercise.Conclusions. These results suggest that the response to physical exertion may vary depending on gender, which highlights a need for further research targeting the relationship between exercise intensity, hormonal response, and body adaptation.