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        <title>Hydrogen Safety Feed</title>
        <link>https://reference-global.com/journal/KITLJHS</link>
        <description>Reference Global RSS Feed for Hydrogen Safety</description>
        <lastBuildDate>Fri, 30 Oct 2026 12:25:01 GMT</lastBuildDate>
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            <title>Hydrogen Safety Feed</title>
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        <copyright>All rights reserved 2026, KIT Scientific Publishing</copyright>
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        <item>
            <title><![CDATA[Uncertainty Quantification Implementation for Quantitative Risk Assessments of Hydrogen Systems]]></title>
            <link>https://reference-global.com/article/10.58895/hysafe.78</link>
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            <pubDate>Fri, 30 Oct 2026 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
            <description><![CDATA[Quantitative risk assessments (QRAs) can provide deterministic estimates of risk criteria but involve significant assumptions and uncertainties. Uncertainty quantification (UQ) methodologies enable propagation of model input uncertainties through deterministic models. This propagation of uncertainty can be leveraged to assess the relative impact of each input uncertainty on the output risk uncertainty in a sensitivity analysis (SA). Latin hypercube sampling is used to produce risk predictions with quantified uncertainty. Surrogate-estimated sensitivity indices and plots are used to estimate the sensitivity of the risk predictions to each input uncertainty. Results from an indoor hydrogen forklift fueling facility risk assessment calculation show significant uncertainty in the predicted risk, given significant uncertainties in various input parameters, though the median risk prediction is close to the deterministic prediction. SA results for this example indicate that occupant location is the primary driver of risk uncertainty in this specific case; when conditioned on a fixed location, the next leading uncertainty source is the leak frequency of full-bore instrumentation leaks. Leak frequencies for full-bore leaks from other components contributed less than 10% of the uncertainty in risk. Applying UQ methods to QRA calculations provides both a quantitative understanding of the uncertainty associated with its risk predictions as well as an understanding of which uncertainty sources are driving that uncertainty.]]></description>
            <category>ARTICLE</category>
        </item>
        <item>
            <title><![CDATA[Procedure for Recommissioning of H2 Bus Refueling Systems at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology]]></title>
            <link>https://reference-global.com/article/10.58895/hysafe.61</link>
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            <pubDate>Mon, 28 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
            <description><![CDATA[On the initiative of and with financial support from the Ministry of the Environment of the State of Baden-Württemberg, Germany, the presidium of the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) decided in fall 2009 to build a hydrogen (H2) fueling station as one essential element of a filling station of the future. The KIT H2 refueling station was designed to serve two H2 fuel cell buses, replacing the conventional diesel buses of the KIT shuttle bus service. After completion of the fueling station and delivery of the two H2 fuel cell buses, both of which were the 12 m City Bus Standard type from EvoBus GmbH (which has since become Daimler Buses GmbH, part of Daimler Truck), the KIT H2 shuttle started operation in 2011. The buses had an operating license of 10 years for the hydrogen tank system, expiring in 2021. To enable the buses to continue to operate, KIT, TÜV SÜD (Technical Inspection Association South (Germany)), the bus contract workshop (S&amp;G Automobil AG) and Pro-Science GmbH worked together to find a way to extend the operating license of the bus tank system. Neither regulations, standards nor technical recommendations were available for this process, which had never been done before in Europe to the knowledge of the authors. This paper describes the procedure finally agreed with the surveillance body and highlights the main points of the tests required for renewal of the license. After a two-month break, the successful recommissioning of the bus refueling systems allowed the system’s lifetime to be extended by five years.]]></description>
            <category>ARTICLE</category>
        </item>
        <item>
            <title><![CDATA[Impact of Release Temperature on Hydrogen Jet Mixing with Ambient Air]]></title>
            <link>https://reference-global.com/article/10.58895/hysafe.79</link>
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            <pubDate>Thu, 10 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
            <description><![CDATA[Liquid hydrogen leaks produce large volumes of cryogenic, flammable mixtures, posing major safety risks to personnel and equipment. This work studies the impact of hydrogen release temperature on jet mixing and dispersion in ambient air. Controlled release experiments are conducted with dry air in an open-ended chamber, with the hydrogen storage temperature varying from 35 to 290 K while the release pressure or mass flow rate is kept constant. The hydrogen mass fraction and mixture temperature are measured using a sampling probe at 20–255 mm axially and 0–50 mm radially from the release nozzle. For release temperatures between 35 and 129 K, the centreline decay of the hydrogen mass fraction and the mixture enthalpy both become slower as the release temperature decreases. This decay rate, determined using Kleinstein’s classic method (Kleinstein, 1964), is between 0.2 and 0.3 for the hydrogen mass fraction, comparable to previous experiments analysed using Chen and Rodi’s (1980) method. On the other hand, the radial decay rate of both scalars, characterized by Gaussian functions, increases as the release temperature decreases. While some scattering exists in these trends, the relative decay of the hydrogen mass fraction and the mixture enthalpy, representing the turbulent Lewis number (Let), shows a consistent variation with the release temperature. At room temperature Let approaches 1, as commonly assumed in CFD simulations of turbulent jet mixing. As the release temperature decreases, Let drops approximately linearly and reaches approximately 0.8 at 70 K and even lower at colder release temperatures where Kleinstein’s analysis becomes more challenging. These results provide the first experimental data evidencing this slower decay with colder jets, which leads to longer and larger flammable envelopes. The experiments are also simulated using the open-source HyRAM software. While the low-order model reproduces the axial and radial measurements reasonably well at deep cryogenic conditions, the performance deteriorates with increasing release temperature, particularly at room temperatures, likely due to the identical, temperature-invariant decay rates assumed for the hydrogen concentration and the mixture temperature in the model.]]></description>
            <category>ARTICLE</category>
        </item>
        <item>
            <title><![CDATA[Multi-Stage Catalyst to Prevent Hydrogen Explosions in Liquefied Hydrogen Leakage and Self-Ignition by Reaction Heat]]></title>
            <link>https://reference-global.com/article/10.58895/hysafe.71</link>
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            <pubDate>Thu, 03 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
            <description><![CDATA[Hydrogen is gaining global attention as a clean energy carrier due to its potential to contribute to carbon neutrality. Among various forms, liquefied hydrogen (LH2) offers significant advantages in energy density and storage efficiency. In contrast, when LH2 leaks, extremely low-temperature and high-velocity hydrogen is released, posing serious safety challenges. One promising safety measure is the passive autocatalytic recombiner (PAR), which catalytically converts leaking hydrogen and atmospheric oxygen into water without external power. This study aims to enhance the safety performance of PAR systems. To achieve this, the thermal behavior of multilayer hydrogen oxidation catalysts was investigated under demanding forced-flow hydrogen release conditions at room temperature. Since hydrogen oxidation is a strongly exothermic reaction, localized reactions can cause rapid temperature increases, potentially leading to self-ignition. Here, self-ignition is also called auto-ignition or spontaneous ignition. At temperatures above 500°C, ignition occurs without an external source of ignition, such as a flame or spark. To mitigate this risk, it is essential to spatially distribute the reaction and control heat generation. As a countermeasure, catalyst configurations were designed with variations in precious metal loading and material properties across layers. The rear layer was loaded with a higher concentration of precious metals to respond to low hydrogen concentrations during the early stages. In contrast, the front layer was designed with reduced precious metal content or iron-based materials, allowing it to react only under higher hydrogen concentrations. Configurations where Fe was selectively placed in the middle or front catalysts showed favorable behavior. The Fe was activated under high-temperature conditions by receiving reaction heat from the rear layer. This contributed to sustaining the reaction and controlling heat generation, even without using precious metals. Furthermore, in configurations where Pt and Fe were supported sequentially and separated as distinct phases, Fe effectively acted as a reaction promoter. This structure facilitated stepwise reaction progress and contributed to better heat distribution. These findings indicate that spatial control of reactivity and appropriate material selection are key to preventing thermal runaway.]]></description>
            <category>ARTICLE</category>
        </item>
        <item>
            <title><![CDATA[Experimental Study on Quenching Distance of Hydrogen–Ammonia Blended Fuel in Air]]></title>
            <link>https://reference-global.com/article/10.58895/hysafe.57</link>
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            <pubDate>Mon, 10 Aug 2026 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
            <description><![CDATA[Hydrogen–ammonia blended fuel has garnered considerable attention as an alternative to traditional fossil fuels. In this study, we experimentally investigated the dependence of the quenching distance of hydrogen–ammonia blended fuel in air on the hydrogen or ammonia fractions. Consequently, the quenching distance increased exponentially with increasing ammonia fraction (XNH3). The equivalence ratio corresponding to the minimum quenching distance shifted to smaller side with decreasing XNH3. The burning velocity of blended fuel in air at XNH3 = 0.6 was comparable to that of methane–air or propane–air premixtures. Furthermore, the Peclet number estimated from the measured quenching distances decreased as the equivalence ratio decreased from unity, regardless of XNH3. This trend is attributed to the influence of the Lewis number, which enhances flame stretch effects induced by the parallel flanges. It was also found that the quenching distance of hydrogen–ammonia blended fuel can be calculated by the estimated Peclet number by the equivalence ratio even, if it does not maintain a constant value.]]></description>
            <category>ARTICLE</category>
        </item>
        <item>
            <title><![CDATA[Study on Transient Heat Transfer and Vaporization Rate of Liquid Hydrogen under Different Ground Materials]]></title>
            <link>https://reference-global.com/article/10.58895/hysafe.73</link>
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            <pubDate>Mon, 20 Jul 2026 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
            <description><![CDATA[To investigate the differences in the vaporization of liquid hydrogen (LH2) under different heat input conditions from the ground, LH2 was poured into two cylindrical vessels. One vessel was made of concrete with an inner diameter of 0.5 m and a reservoir depth of 0.25 m, and the other vessel was made of mortar with the same inner diameter and the same reservoir depth, with 0.15 m of gravel or soil at the bottom. The temperature at each point in these vessels was measured using T-type thermocouples. The weight of LH2 was measured to study the differences in heat input and vaporization rate. The vaporization rate was the fastest for gravel, followed by concrete and then soil. The experiment with the gravel layer confirmed that liquid air was produced after the vaporization of LH2. In this paper, we reported the vaporization process of LH2 under transient heat transfer.]]></description>
            <category>ARTICLE</category>
        </item>
        <item>
            <title><![CDATA[Experimental Investigation of Volume Estimation Methods for Hydrogen Refueling Stations]]></title>
            <link>https://reference-global.com/article/10.58895/hysafe.59</link>
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            <pubDate>Thu, 25 Jun 2026 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
            <description><![CDATA[Hydrogen refueling stations (HRSs) control and ensure safety during the refueling of fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs), relying on the volume of the FCEVs’ compressed hydrogen storage system (CHSS) (SAE J2601 and J2601 TIR 5). When communication between the HRSs and FCEVs is unavailable, the HRSs must estimate this volume. Even with communication, the HRSs must verify the transmitted CHSS volume to prevent corruption or unauthorized modification. This study experimentally investigates the SAE J2601 TIR 5 volume estimation method considering different initial pressures and fuel delivery temperatures with two different tanks: a type IV 243.6 L tank and a type IV 1520 L tank. Different CHSS volume estimation formulations, based on selected physical hypotheses, are detailed, compared, and evaluated for precision using the experimental data.]]></description>
            <category>ARTICLE</category>
        </item>
        <item>
            <title><![CDATA[A Review of Hydrogen Ignition Probability Based on Large-Scale Test Results]]></title>
            <link>https://reference-global.com/article/10.58895/hysafe.63</link>
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            <pubDate>Thu, 18 Jun 2026 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
            <description><![CDATA[Ignition of hydrogen-air mixtures is a topic of significance when it comes to assessing the relative safety of any future energy transition that involves hydrogen. Unlike the widespread, decades-long experience of operating with hydrocarbons, there is often little or no statistically significant data on ignition probabilities with hydrogen. Furthermore, the data that has been collated by various bodies can lack information on the mechanism of ignition. For hydrogen, this is generally accepted to be one of three mechanisms: electrostatic ignition, diffusion ignition or hot-surface ignition. This paper approaches the issue from a different direction where the details of experimental work at DNV Spadeadam over the past 20 years are examined. Of particular interest are experiments where hydrogen has been released and the resulting flammable mixture has not been deliberately actioned. It was possible to examine a total of 1,336 cases where hydrogen was released under experimental conditions, and a total of five non-deliberate ignition events were identified. The few occasions where ignition has occurred without deliberate action are examined, and comparisons with simple ignition models are made.]]></description>
            <category>ARTICLE</category>
        </item>
        <item>
            <title><![CDATA[Reduced Order Models for Liquid Hydrogen Pooling and Vaporization Supported by Experiments]]></title>
            <link>https://reference-global.com/article/10.58895/hysafe.70</link>
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            <pubDate>Tue, 16 Jun 2026 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
            <description><![CDATA[In the event of a leak of liquid hydrogen, a pool can form that vaporizes, disperses, and eventually dilutes to a non-flammable mixture. In this work, we describe fast-running models for the pooling and vaporization of liquid hydrogen in a steady cross-wind. Several pooling models from the literature are compared to solve for the flow and extent of the pool. The size of the pool can serve as the source for a separate dispersion model, which builds upon the existing one-dimensional Gaussian plume model in HyRAM+. Additional terms for the effects of a cross-wind on momentum and entrainment were added so that the model could handle the effects of a cross-wind on a low-speed flow. The models are compared to experimental data on pooling extent and downwind dispersion for steady flow rates of liquid hydrogen in a steady cross-wind. In the two compared experiments, liquid flow rates of 15 and 45 g/s were spilled onto concrete in cross-winds of approximately 1.8 m/s. The rate of growth of the pool and the downwind concentration boundaries are compared to the models, showing good agreement, although additional tuning is needed. These models can contribute to the advancement of codes and standards for liquid hydrogen systems.]]></description>
            <category>ARTICLE</category>
        </item>
        <item>
            <title><![CDATA[Reduced-Order Modeling of Hydrogen Releases from Vent Stacks and with Wind Effects]]></title>
            <link>https://reference-global.com/article/10.58895/hysafe.74</link>
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            <pubDate>Thu, 11 Jun 2026 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
            <description><![CDATA[The physical release behavior of hydrogen is important to understand from a safety and design perspective. The consequences of unignited pressurized gaseous hydrogen plumes exiting vent stacks were considered by extending and modifying existing general hydrogen plume models. Entrainment, vent stack backpressure, and the flow regime of hydrogen exiting the vent were found to be significant factors affecting plume shape and size, but further investigation and validation with unchoked, low-Froude-number flows is recommended to improve the model’s robustness. Additionally, models for the effects of wind on unignited plume momentum and entrainment were added to explore this behavior. Wind was assumed to increase mixing of hydrogen with the ambient air, and to affect the momentum of the released jet. Introducing wind into the plume model led to a shorter plume for all wind and jet directions. A high counter-flowing wind led to non-physical results and challenges in interpreting the visualization. The proposed jet plume wind sub-models (specifically entrainment coefficients) were fit and compared to experimental data of different releases of hydrogen into a wind tunnel, but the quantity of data available and experimental conditions were limited. Thus, collection of more empirical data and for a wider range of conditions is recommended for improvement of the proposed computational models. Developing reduced-order models for these physical phenomena can improve accessibility to predicted physical behavior and the rate at which hydrogen systems can be safely designed and deployed.]]></description>
            <category>ARTICLE</category>
        </item>
        <item>
            <title><![CDATA[The DISCHA Engineering Tool for LH2 Tank-to-Tank Transfer Operations]]></title>
            <link>https://reference-global.com/article/10.58895/hysafe.52</link>
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            <pubDate>Wed, 03 Jun 2026 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
            <description><![CDATA[The DISCHA engineering tool has been extended to perform liquid hydrogen (LH2) tank-to-tank transfer operations. The tool uses Helmholtz free energy-based equations of state for hydrogen’s physical properties. The tanks can be modelled either with single-zone or multizone models, including heat transfer through the tank walls. The flow through the transfer lines is modelled using a method that accounts for phase change, friction, area change and heat transfer through the pipe walls. The maximum (choked) flow is calculated using the Possible Impossible Flow algorithm. Pumps can also be added to the transfer line. The present work presents the DISCHA tool’s recent validation as well as an investigation of the parameters that affect the tank-to-tank transfer most.]]></description>
            <category>ARTICLE</category>
        </item>
        <item>
            <title><![CDATA[Experimental Investigation of Shock Wave Attenuation by Shock-Absorbing Material]]></title>
            <link>https://reference-global.com/article/10.58895/hysafe.49</link>
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            <pubDate>Wed, 03 Jun 2026 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
            <description><![CDATA[Pressure loads caused by shock waves (SWs) are one of the greatest potential hazards in H2 applications. In open spaces, the area of the shock front continuously increases due to spatial expansion. In confined geometries such as tunnels, the shock front always propagates with the same tunnel cross-sectional area. Friction and reflection on the walls are primarily responsible for the decrease in amplitude and momentum+ with increasing distance. How additional shock-absorbing material can attenuate SW is not yet fully understood. In this study, a special, unbounded, cube-shaped (0.55 m) combustion unit filled with 4 g of H2 (stoichiometric in air) is ignited in the center of a 220 m3 container. The detonation inside the combustion unit emits a SW, whose propagation and reflection on the container wall are measured. The SW reflection behavior (amplitude and impulse) on the steel wall is compared with the reflection on samples with an area of 2 m² made of polystyrene, polyurethane foam, acoustic glass wool, and structured acoustic foam. Compared to the reflected SW amplitude from the steel wall, the reflected SW amplitude on the soft materials is reduced by up to 50%. No clear trend was observed regarding the influence of the thickness of the absorbing material on the attenuation of the sound wave amplitude, while the attenuation of the positive sound wave impulse increases with increasing thickness of the absorbing materials.]]></description>
            <category>ARTICLE</category>
        </item>
        <item>
            <title><![CDATA[Hydrogen Ignition Hazards in a Substation Connecting an Electrolyser to the Electricity Transmission Network]]></title>
            <link>https://reference-global.com/article/10.58895/hysafe.44</link>
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            <pubDate>Mon, 01 Jun 2026 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
            <description><![CDATA[As humanity seeks to decarbonise hard-to-abate sectors, electrolytic hydrogen production, based on renewable electricity, is expected to grow significantly. Co-location of hydrogen and electricity infrastructure is sometimes desirable for reasons of cost and practicality and is unavoidable at the electrical grid interface of an electrolyser. In this work, the risks of co-location for GW-scale hydrogen electrolysers and their grid-connection substation are explored in an interdisciplinary manner by considering the ignition sources presented by electrical substation infrastructure along with the accident scenarios that might arise with varying degrees of co-location, given the properties of hydrogen gas. Corona discharge and insulator discharge are identified as the two greatest hazards present. Mitigation measures are discussed in relation to the accident scenarios through a synthesis of electrical design and hydrogen fire safety design, considering jet flame and explosion risks with electrical assets as ignition sources. In many cases, ignition sources and fuel leak risk cannot be eliminated but physical separation and inclusion of barriers can offer adequate mitigation. Detailed recommendations for future research are identified.]]></description>
            <category>ARTICLE</category>
        </item>
        <item>
            <title><![CDATA[Integrity and Safety of Repurposed Hydrogen Pipelines in the European Union]]></title>
            <link>https://reference-global.com/article/10.58895/hysafe.56</link>
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            <pubDate>Mon, 25 May 2026 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
            <description><![CDATA[The development of a comprehensive hydrogen infrastructure in the European Union is required to bridge the gap between hydrogen supply and demand. The repurposing of part of the existing natural gas infrastructure for the transport of hydrogen, in addition to new constructions, can accelerate the establishment of a hydrogen transmission network in the European Union. Hydrogen exposure is, however, known to notably reduce the ductility and fracture toughness of steel materials and increase fatigue crack growth rates. These changes in material properties may have implications on the behaviour of defects found in the existing natural gas infrastructure and may lead to the need for an update of the pipeline inspection and integrity management practices. From a safety perspective, the safety protocols, emergency response plans, and risk assessment methodologies need to be revised to account for the distinctive properties of hydrogen in comparison to natural gas. Knowledge of past gas pipeline incidents allows a better understanding of the future behaviour of the hydrogen gas grid. The incident history from the natural gas transmission sector in Europe and from hydrogen pipelines worldwide has been compiled using the data available from the European Gas Pipeline Incident Data Group (EGIG) and from the Hydrogen Incidents and Accidents Database (HIAD). Their analysis provides valuable insight on the main threats to pipeline integrity and safety.]]></description>
            <category>ARTICLE</category>
        </item>
        <item>
            <title><![CDATA[Modeling the Consequences of BLEVEs Involving Liquid Hydrogen Components]]></title>
            <link>https://reference-global.com/article/10.58895/hysafe.68</link>
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            <pubDate>Mon, 18 May 2026 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
            <description><![CDATA[The significant advances made in hydrogen storage and transport techniques, along with the necessity to satisfy the market needs, led to a notable increase in the use of liquid hydrogen (LH2). On the one hand, LH2 is convenient in terms of storage capacity and energy content per unit volume. On the other hand, it poses relevant safety issues that must be considered to ensure its reliable and safe utilization. From a safety standpoint, one of the most critical scenarios is the fire exposure of cryogenic tanks. When it occurs, pressure buildup manifests in the component due to the formation of boil-off gas. As a result, the cryogenic equipment could fail catastrophically, potentially generating a boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion (BLEVE). The hazardous consequences of this phenomenon include the blast wave, the projection of fragments, and the fireball. This work aims to provide a prediction of the consequences of an LH2 BLEVE arising from cryogenic components involved in LH2 storage and transfer operations, such as tanks and hoses. Analytical models able to assess blast wave and fireball effects were implemented in the engineering tool BLEXCOM. A new approach is proposed to accurately determine the LH2 BLEVE blast overpressure and impulse. The experiments conducted in the Norwegian research project SH2IFT are considered as case study and exploited for validation purposes. This research is expected to yield innovative insights into the contribution of hydrogen combustion to the effects of the BLEVE consequences. Ultimately, the proposed model could be used during the design phase of inherently safer LH2 equipment.]]></description>
            <category>ARTICLE</category>
        </item>
        <item>
            <title><![CDATA[Hydrogen Removal with Recombiner Technologies: Performance Data and Applications]]></title>
            <link>https://reference-global.com/article/10.58895/hysafe.54</link>
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            <pubDate>Fri, 08 May 2026 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
            <description><![CDATA[Catalytic hydrogen combustion has been widely used for both heat generation such as heaters, burners, and cookers, and safety applications (i.e., removal of undesired hydrogen). This study provides an assessment of three types of catalytic recombiners across various hydrogen management scenarios. Passive autocatalytic recombiners, originally developed to mitigate hydrogen explosion risks in nuclear containments, can also serve as alternative or supplementary measures in other confined environments prone to hydrogen accumulation. Monolith-type recombiners can be integrated with venting or purging systems to facilitate hydrogen removal during both routine operations and accidental releases. Trickle-bed recombiners, designed to oxidize stoichiometric hydrogen–oxygen mixtures at low temperatures, are particularly suited for gas purification. Selected experiments are presented to evaluate the operational characteristics, potential applications, and limitations of these recombiners. The findings demonstrate that appropriately designed and sized recombiners can effectively maintain hydrogen concentrations within safe limits.]]></description>
            <category>ARTICLE</category>
        </item>
        <item>
            <title><![CDATA[The Role of Environmental Law in the Development of Green Hydrogen in Northern Sweden]]></title>
            <link>https://reference-global.com/article/10.58895/hysafe.53</link>
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            <pubDate>Mon, 20 Apr 2026 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
            <description><![CDATA[Implementing new technologies, such as large-scale hydrogen applications, often represents a challenge for society. For example, when assessing permits for new types of operations, considerable challenges exist, not least in terms of difficulties regarding the degree of hazardousness and what constitutes ‘best available technique’. The less knowledge there is about the activity, the higher the requirements for safety/protective measures typically become. Some guidance can be obtained from the examination of similar activities, but as the assessment must be made on a case-by-case basis, the possibility of analogously applying the process from another type of activity is limited. The environmental permit assessment in Sweden has often been accused for both dragging on and for containing significant elements of unpredictability. For hydrogen applications, the lack of a coherent regulatory framework risks amplifying these challenges, thus creating a situation characterized by a high level of uncertainty and thereby considerable costs, which may threaten the (necessary) investments. This study examines the Swedish environmental permit process with a focus on large-scale hydrogen applications. Using both quantitative methods (a survey distributed to key actors in the hydrogen industry and relevant authorities) and qualitative legal analysis, the study aims to identify potential legal barriers that may hinder the development of hydrogen technologies and, by extension, the green transition in northern Sweden.]]></description>
            <category>ARTICLE</category>
        </item>
        <item>
            <title><![CDATA[Vacuum Failure Experiments on a Liquid Hydrogen Tank]]></title>
            <link>https://reference-global.com/article/10.58895/hysafe.46</link>
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            <pubDate>Fri, 17 Apr 2026 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
            <description><![CDATA[Liquid hydrogen (LH2), which has a boiling point of 20 K at atmospheric pressure, needs to be stored and transported using high levels of insulation to limit heat ingress. Typically, this is achieved by a double-walled tank with multi-layer insulation (MLI) in the interstitial space, combined with a high vacuum. If the vacuum fails from the outside, heat transfers from the air breaking the vacuum to the LH2, warming the LH2 and cooling/condensing the air. This paper describes experimental work where the vacuum of an LH2 tank was intentionally failed using nitrogen as a surrogate for air.
During depressurisations of the inner tank after vacuum failure, saturation conditions were not achieved under all conditions tested, but the behaviour suggested that saturation conditions could be achieved in the vent line if the depressurisation was fast enough from a high enough pressure. This could mean that vapour may condense in the vent line for a short period of time during depressurisation.
The mass flow of hydrogen out of the inner tank after vacuum failure was calculated from the data recorded, which was ~2.5 times lower than expected from the international cryogenic standards for the conditions tested.
When the inner tank was left open to the atmosphere, a steady-state pressure was achieved in the outer tank, where the rate of nitrogen condensation was balanced by the nitrogen that was metered into it; this allowed the heat transfer from the inrush of nitrogen and the contribution from condensation/freezing to be calculated.
The MLI sustained damage during the experiments. On examination, it was concluded that the damage was sustained during the experiment to the edges of the MLI blankets and around penetrations through the MLI required for inner vessel connections. In all locations observed, coverage of MLI was found, even if the number of layers was likely reduced in places.]]></description>
            <category>ARTICLE</category>
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        <item>
            <title><![CDATA[Hydrogen Mixtures Flammability Limits Prediction Using Machine Learning Models]]></title>
            <link>https://reference-global.com/article/10.58895/hysafe.58</link>
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            <pubDate>Thu, 09 Apr 2026 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
            <description><![CDATA[Predictions on flammability limits (FLs) had been conducted using semi-empirical and fully empirical models, which are either limited in scope of application and/or affected by significant methodical prediction errors. Some parameters influencing the FLs are not considered in the non-comprehensive empirical models. In the present study, optimized multilayer perceptron (MLP) models are investigated to improve the accuracy of the prediction of FLs in dependance from the temperature and any inert gas admixtures. Different input features constituted by the flammability state, mixture composition, initial mixture temperature, adiabatic flame temperature, and Lewis numbers were implemented into the MLP model. Data limitation challenges were addressed using data augmentation. The best model indicated averaged deviations comparable to the respective experimental FLs determination errors. The models also indicated comparable performances in comparison to the empirical models while having a broader range of applicability. This approach seeks to improve FLs prediction accuracy and calculation time necessary, minimizing FLs determination experimental efforts.]]></description>
            <category>ARTICLE</category>
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            <title><![CDATA[Pressure Peaking Phenomena for Unignited Liquid Hydrogen Releases: Experiments and Analysis]]></title>
            <link>https://reference-global.com/article/10.58895/hysafe.47</link>
            <guid isPermaLink="false">/article/10.58895/hysafe.47</guid>
            <pubDate>Mon, 06 Apr 2026 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
            <description><![CDATA[Liquid hydrogen (LH2) has been identified as a carbon-free fuel in the transition to Net Zero. The transport sector has a particular interest in LH2 due to its increased density (71 kg/m3 at –253°C, 0.1 MPa) compared to pressurised gaseous hydrogen (24 kg/m3 at 20°C, 35 MPa). The Health and Safety Executive’s (HSE) Science Division has been researching and assessing LH2 transport hazards for over a decade with supporting UK Safe Net Zero as one of the organisation’s key objectives.
Pressure peaking is a phenomenon unique to lighter-than-air gases, where an overpressure develops due to a release of unignited gas, which can be high enough to cause damage to structures. This work investigates the extent to which pressure peaking can occur in the event of significant unignited LH2 releases inside a ventilated enclosure. The experiments presented are intended to be representative of a full-bore LH2 hose failure inside a transfer connection space.
LH2 releases of 180 g/s into a 1 m3 enclosure with a vent area varying from 0.0416 to 0.0104 m2 were studied. It was found that pressure peaking can occur, with a maximum peak overpressure of 3.5 kPa observed for the smallest vent area. Compared to a modelled gaseous release of the same mass flow rate, the peak overpressure of the LH2 experiment is significantly lower.]]></description>
            <category>ARTICLE</category>
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